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This glossary of medical terms is a list of definitions about , its sub-disciplines, and related fields.


A
  • Aarskog–Scott syndrome – (AAS) A rare, inherited (X-linked) disease characterized by short stature, facial abnormalities, skeletal and genital anomalies.
  • – The part of the body between the and , which contains most of the tubelike organs of the digestive tract, as well as several solid organs.
  • Abdominal external oblique muscle – The largest, and outermost, of the three flat muscles of the lateral anterior abdominal wall.
  • Abdominal internal oblique muscle – A muscle of the abdominal wall, which lies below the and just above the transverse abdominal muscles.
  • Abductor pollicis brevis muscle – A muscle in the hand that abducts (straightens) the thumb.
  • Abductor pollicis longus muscle – One of the extrinsic muscles of the hand. Its major function is to abduct the thumb at the wrist.
  • – A collection of that has built up within the tissue of the body.
  • Accommodation – the process by which the focuses on an object.
  • Accommodation reflex – a reflex action of the eye, measured as a response to focusing on a near object, then looking at a distant object (and vice versa).
  • – a concave surface of the , which forms the pelvic section of the hip joint.
  • – a tendon of the back of the leg, and the thickest in the human body. It attaches the , (calf) and to the (heel) bone.
  • – a long-term that occurs when are clogged with and .
  • – see Acne
  • – an alternative medicine technique where pressure is applied to points. Pressure may be applied by hand, by elbow, or with various devices.
  • – a form of alternative medicine in which thin needles are inserted into the body.
  • Adam's apple – the lump or protrusion that is formed by the angle of the thyroid cartilage surrounding the seen especially in males.
  • Adaptive immune system – also known as the acquired immune system or, more rarely, as the specific immune system, is a subsystem of the overall that is composed of highly specialized, systemic cells and processes that eliminate or prevent their growth.
  • – (plural adenomas or adenomata) is a of tissue with origin, glandular characteristics, or both.
  • – The adrenal glands (also known as suprarenal glands) are that produce a variety of hormones including and the steroids and .
    (2025). 9781634835701, Nova Science Publishers, New York, NY. .
    They are found above the .
  • – Allergies, also known as allergic diseases, are a number of conditions caused by of the to typically harmless substances in the environment.
    (2025). 9780781753173, Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. .
    These diseases include , , atopic dermatitis, , and . Symptoms may include red eyes, an itchy rash, , a , shortness of breath, or swelling. Food intolerances and are separate conditions.
  • – Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder.
  • Alzheimer's disease – (AD), also referred to simply as Alzheimer's, is a chronic neurodegenerative disease that usually starts slowly and worsens over time. It is the cause of 60–70% of cases of . The most common early symptom is difficulty in remembering recent events (short-term memory loss).
  • – is the terminal part of the . It is situated between the and , below the level of the . In humans it is approximately 2.5 to 4 cm (0.98-1.58 in) long. It lies in the of in between the right and left .
  • – is the branch of concerned with the study of the structure of organisms and their parts.Merriam Webster Dictionary Anatomy is a branch of natural science which deals with the structural organization of living things.
  • – Anesthesiology, anaesthesiology, anaesthesia or anaesthetics (see Terminology) is the medical speciality concerned with the total perioperative care of patients before, during and after .
  • – is the medical specialty which studies the diseases of the circulatory system and of the , i.e., , and , and its .
  • – The ankle, or the talocrural region,
    (2025). 9781451119459, Lippincott Williams & Wilkins.
    is the region where the and the meet.
    (2025). 9780544188976, Houghton Mifflin Harcourt.
    The ankle includes three : the ankle joint proper or talocrural joint, the , and the inferior tibiofibular joint.
    (1999). 9780683306637, Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. .
    (2025). 9780443103513, Elsevier Health Sciences.
    (2025). 9781455733941, Elsevier Health Sciences.
    The movements produced at this joint are dorsiflexion and of the foot. In common usage, the term ankle refers exclusively to the ankle region. In medical terminology, "ankle" (without qualifiers) can refer broadly to the region or specifically to the talocrural joint.
  • Anterior tibial artery – The anterior tibial artery of the carries blood to the anterior compartment of the leg and dorsal surface of the , from the .
  • – is a type of substance active against and is the most important type of antibacterial agent for fighting bacterial infections. Antibiotic are widely used in the and prevention of such infections.
  • – (Ab), also known as an immunoglobulin (Ig),
    (2025). 9780534421748, Thomson Learning. .
    is a large, Y-shaped produced mainly by that is used by the to neutralize such as pathogenic bacteria and .
  • – is the main in the , originating from the left ventricle of the and extending down to the , where it splits into two smaller arteries (the common iliac arteries). The aorta distributes oxygenated blood to all parts of the body through the systemic circulation.
    (1995). 9780139811760, Prentice Hall. .
  • Appendix – The appendix (or vermiform appendix; also cecal or appendix; vermix; or vermiform process) is a finger-like, blind-ended tube connected to the , from which it develops in the embryo. The cecum is a pouch-like structure of the colon, located at the junction of the and the . The term "" comes from and means "worm-shaped." The appendix used to be considered a vestigial organ, but this view has changed over the past decades.
  • – is the part of the between the glenohumeral joint (shoulder joint) and the . In common usage, the arm extends to the hand. It can be divided into the upper arm, which extends from the shoulder to the elbow, the which extends from the elbow to the hand, and the . Anatomically the with bones and corresponding muscles is by definition a part of the arm. The Latin term brachium may refer to either the arm as a whole or to the upper arm on its own.
  • – is a small-diameter in the that extends and branches out from an and leads to . Arterioles have walls (usually only one to two layers of ) and are the primary site of vascular resistance. The greatest change in blood pressure and velocity of blood flow occurs at the transition of arterioles to capillaries.
  • – is a that takes away from the heart to all parts of the body (tissues, lungs, etc.). Most arteries carry oxygenated blood; the two exceptions are the pulmonary and the umbilical arteries, which carry deoxygenated blood to the organs that oxygenate it. The effective arterial blood volume is that extracellular fluid which fills the arterial system.
  • – is a term often used to mean any disorder that affects . generally include and stiffness. Other symptoms may include redness, warmth, , and decreased range of motion of the affected joints.
  • Asperger syndrome – (AS), also known as Asperger's, is a developmental disorder characterized by significant difficulties in social interaction and nonverbal communication, along with restricted and repetitive patterns of behavior and interests. As a milder autism spectrum disorder (ASD), it differs from other ASDs by relatively normal language and intelligence. Although not required for diagnosis, physical clumsiness and unusual use of language are common.
  • – is a common long-term disease of the of the lungs. It is characterized by variable and recurring symptoms, reversible airflow obstruction, and . Symptoms include episodes of , , chest tightness, and shortness of breath.
  • – absence of .
  • Atrial fibrillation – (AF or A-fib) is an abnormal heart rhythm characterized by of the atria. Often it starts as brief periods of abnormal which become longer and possibly constant over time. Often episodes have .
  • Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder – is a of the neurodevelopmental type.
    (2025). 9780387717982, Springer Science & Business Media. .
    It is characterized by problems paying attention, excessive activity, or which is not appropriate for a person's age."Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder". National Institute of Mental Health. March 2016. Archived from the original on 23 July 2016. Retrieved 5 March 2016
  • – is listening to the internal sounds of the body, usually using a . Auscultation is performed for the purposes of examining the and respiratory systems ( and ), as well as the gastrointestinal system.
  • – is a developmental disorder characterized by troubles with social interaction and , and by restricted and repetitive . Parents usually notice signs during the first two or three years of their child's life. These signs often develop gradually, though some children with autism reach their developmental milestones at a normal pace before worsening.
  • – (also, armpit, underarm or oxter) is the area on the human body directly under the where the connects to the . It also provides the under-arm .
  • – is a large that conveys oxygenated to the lateral aspect of the , the (armpit) and the . Its origin is at the lateral margin of the first , before which it is called the subclavian artery.


B
  • – The human back is the large posterior area of the , rising from the top of the to the back of the and the shoulders. It is the of the body opposite from the . The runs the length of the back and creates a central area of recession. The breadth of the back is created by the at the top and the at the bottom.
  • – is felt in the . It is divided into (cervical), middle back pain (thoracic), lower back pain (lumbar) or (tailbone or sacral pain) based on the segment affected. The lumbar area is the most common area for pain, as it supports most of the weight in the upper body.Church E, Odle T. Diagnosis and treatment of back pain.  Radiologic Technology serial. November 2007;79(2):126-204. Available from: CINAHL Plus with Full Text, Ipswich, MA. Accessed December 12, 2017. Episodes of back pain may be acute, sub-acute, or chronic depending on the duration. The pain may be characterized as a dull ache, shooting or piercing pain, or a burning sensation. Discomfort can radiate into the and as well as the or , and may include , or weakness in the legs and arms.
  • – is injury caused by a pressure difference between tissues and a gas filled space.
  • Basal
    • : In the direction of the base. Antonym apical.
    • : Lowest sustained level or minimum level required, as in basal metabolic rate.
  • – Beta cells (β cells) are a type of cell found in pancreatic islets that synthesize and secrete . Beta cells make up 50-70% of the cells in human islets. In patients with type I or type II diabetes, beta-cell mass and function are diminished, leading to insufficient insulin secretion and hyperglycemia.
  • – also biceps brachii (Latin for "two-headed muscle of the arm"), is a large that lies on the front of the upper arm between the shoulder and the elbow. Both heads of the muscle arise on the and join to form a single muscle belly which is attached to the upper forearm. While the biceps crosses both the and elbow joints, its main function is at the elbow where it flexes the forearm and the forearm. Both these movements are used when opening a bottle with a corkscrew: first biceps unscrews the cork (supination), then it pulls the cork out (flexion).
    (2025). 9780803612433, F. A. Davis Company. .
  • – The biceps, also biceps brachii (Latin for "two-headed muscle of the arm"), is a large that lies on the front of the upper arm between the shoulder and the elbow. Both heads of the muscle arise on the and join to form a single muscle belly which is attached to the upper forearm. While the biceps crosses both the and elbow joints, its main function is at the elbow where it flexes the forearm and the forearm. Both these movements are used when opening a bottle with a corkscrew: first biceps unscrews the cork (supination), then it pulls the cork out (flexion).
  • – is any of a number of long tube-like structures that carry . Bile, required for the of food, is secreted by the into passages that carry bile toward the , which joins with the (carrying bile to and from the ) to form the common bile duct, which opens into the .
  • – The biliary tract, (biliary tree or biliary system) refers to the , and , and how they work together to make, store and secrete . Bile consists of water, , , , and conjugated bilirubin. Some components are synthesised by (liver cells), the rest are extracted from the by the liver.
  • Binge eating disorder – (BED), is an characterized by frequent and recurrent episodes with associated negative psychological and social problems, but without subsequent purging episodes (e.g. vomiting). BED is a recently described condition,
    (2025). 9781854333988, The British Psychological Society and Gaskell. .
    which was required to distinguish binge eating similar to that seen in but without characteristic purging. Individuals who are diagnosed with bulimia nervosa and binge eating disorder exhibit similar patterns of compulsive overeating, neurobiological features of dysfunctional cognitive control and , and biological and environmental risk factors. Indeed, some consider BED a milder version of bulimia, and that the conditions are on the same spectrum.
  • Biological engineering – or bioengineering, or bio-engineering, is the application of principles of biology and the tools of engineering to create usable, tangible, economically viable products.
    (2025). 9781306967051, Essential Library.
    Biological engineering employs knowledge and expertise from a number of pure and applied sciences,
    (2025). 9783642149979
    such as mass and heat transfer, kinetics, biocatalysts, biomechanics, , separation and purification processes, bioreactor design, surface science, fluid mechanics, , and polymer science. It is used in the design of medical devices, diagnostic equipment, biocompatible materials, renewable bioenergy, ecological engineering, agricultural engineering, and other areas that improve the living standards of societies.
  • – is the that studies and living , including their , , molecular interactions, , development and .Based on definition from:
  • – sometimes called biological chemistry, is the study of within and relating to living .
  • – is an interdisciplinary field that develops methods and for understanding data. As an interdisciplinary field of science, bioinformatics combines , , information engineering, and to analyze and interpret biological data.
  • – is a commonly performed by a , interventional radiologist, or an interventional cardiologist involving extraction of sample cells or tissues for examination to determine the presence or extent of a disease.
  • – are the application of to a wide range of topics in . It encompasses the design of biological , especially in , , and ; the collection, summarization, and analysis of data from those experiments; and the interpretation of, and inference from, the results. A major branch is medical biostatistics, which is exclusively concerned with medicine and health.
    (2025). 9781439884140, CRC Press.
  • – is a that causes periods of depression and periods of abnormally American Psychiatry Association (2013). Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (5th ed.). Arlington: American Psychiatric Publishing. pp. 123–154.
  • – also known as contraception and fertility control, is a method or device used to prevent .
  • – is any of several types of arising from the tissues of the . It is a disease in which cells grow abnormally and have the potential to . Symptoms include blood in the urine, , and low back pain.
  • – is the of circulating on the walls of . Used without further specification, "blood pressure" usually refers to the pressure in large of the systemic circulation. Blood pressure is usually expressed in terms of the (maximum during one heartbeat) over (minimum in between two heartbeats) and is measured in millimeters of mercury (), above the surrounding atmospheric pressure.
  • – The blood vessels are the part of the circulatory system, and , that transports throughout the .
  • – is a organ that constitutes part of the . Bones support and protect the various organs of the body, produce red and white blood cells, store , provide structure and support for the body, and enable mobility. Bones come in a variety of shapes and sizes and have a complex internal and external structure. They are lightweight yet strong and hard, and serve multiple functions.
  • – is a semi-solid tissue which may be found within the spongy or cancellous portions of .
    (2025). 9780781770934, Wolters Kluwer Health/Lippincott William & Wilkins.
    Bone marrow is the primary site of new blood cell production or . It is composed of , marrow adipose tissue, and supportive stromal cells. In adult humans, bone marrow is primarily located in the ribs, vertebrae, sternum, and bones of the pelvis. On average, bone marrow constitutes 4% of the total body mass of humans; in an adult having 65 kilograms of mass (143 lb), bone marrow typically accounts for approximately .
  • – is the major of the (upper) arm. It is the continuation of the beyond the lower margin of teres major muscle. It continues down the surface of the arm until it reaches the at the . It then divides into the and which run down the . In some individuals, the bifurcation occurs much earlier and the ulnar and radial arteries extend through the upper arm. The of the brachial artery is on the anterior aspect of the elbow, medial to the of the , and, with the use of a and (blood pressure cuff) often used to measure the .
  • – is a formed by the of the lower four and first (C5, C6, C7, C8, and T1). This plexus extends from the , through the cervicoaxillary canal in the neck, over the first rib, and into the . It supplies afferent and efferent nerve fibers to the chest, shoulder, arm and hand.
  • – In , the brachial veins are of the in the proper. Because they are deep to muscle, they are considered . Their course is that of the brachial artery (in reverse): they begin where and join (corresponding to the bifurcation of the brachial artery). They end at the inferior border of the muscle. At this point, the brachial veins join the to form the . The brachial veins also have small tributaries that drain the of the upper arm, such as biceps brachii muscle and triceps brachii muscle.
  • – is a of the that flexes the forearm at the . It is also capable of both and , depending on the position of the forearm. It is attached to the distal styloid process of the radius by way of the brachioradialis tendon, and to the lateral supracondylar ridge of the .
  • –is a condition typically defined wherein an individual has a resting of under 60 (BPM) in adults.
  • – The human brain is the central organ of the human , and with the makes up the central nervous system. The brain consists of the , the and the . It controls most of the activities of the , processing, integrating, and coordinating the information it receives from the sense organs, and making decisions as to the instructions sent to the rest of the body. The brain is contained in, and protected by, the of the .
  • – occurs when abnormal cells form within the . There are two main types of : malignant or tumors and tumors.
  • – is a that has (spread) to the brain from another location in the body and is therefore considered a . The metastasis typically shares a with the original site of the cancer.
  • – The breast is one of two prominences located on the upper region of the of . In females, it serves as the , which produces and secretes milk to feed . Both females and males develop breasts from the same tissues. At , , in conjunction with , cause breast development in female humans and to a much lesser extent in other primates. Breast development in other primate females generally only occurs with pregnancy.
  • – is that develops from tissue. Signs of breast cancer may include a in the breast, a change in breast shape, of the skin, fluid coming from the nipple, a newly inverted nipple, or a red or scaly patch of skin. In those with distant spread of the disease, there may be , swollen , shortness of breath, or .
    (2025). 9780199558698, Oxford University Press. .
  • Broca's area – or the Broca area, is a region in the of the dominant hemisphere, usually the left, of the with functions linked to speech production.
  • – The bronchioles or bronchioli are the passageways by which air passes through the or to the alveoli (air sacs) of the , in which branches no longer contain or in their . They are branches of the , and are part of the of the respiratory system. The bronchioles divide further into smaller terminal bronchioles which are still in the conducting zone and these then divide into the smaller respiratory bronchioles which mark the beginning of the respiratory region.
  • – A bronchi is a passage of airway in the respiratory system that conducts into the . The first bronchi to branch from the are the right main bronchus and the left main bronchus. These are the widest and enter the at each hilum, where they branch into narrower secondary bronchi known as lobar bronchi, and these branch into narrower tertiary bronchi known as segmental bronchi. Further divisions of the segmental bronchi are known as 4th order, 5th order, and 6th order segmental bronchi, or grouped together as subsegmental bronchi.
    (2025). 9781455704187, W B Saunders Co.
    The bronchi when too narrow to be supported by cartilage are known as . No takes place in the bronchi.
  • – also called vascular murmur, is the abnormal sound generated by of blood in an artery due to either an area of partial obstruction or a localized high rate of blood flow through an unobstructed artery.
  • – also known as simply bulimia, is an characterized by followed by purging."Bulimia nervosa fact sheet". Office on Women's Health. July 16, 2012. Archived from the original on 19 June 2015. Retrieved 27 June 2015. Binge eating refers to eating a large amount of food in a short amount of time. Purging refers to the attempts to get rid of the food consumed.
  • – are two rounded portions of the anatomy, located on the posterior of the pelvic region and comprise a layer of fat superimposed on the and gluteus medius muscles. Physiologically, the buttocks enable weight to be taken off the feet while sitting.


C
  • Calcium ions (Ca2+) contribute to the and of organisms and the cell. They play an important role in signal transduction pathways,Brini, Marisa; Ottolini, Denis; Calì, Tito; Carafoli, Ernesto (2013). "Chapter 4. Calcium in Health and Disease". In Astrid Sigel, Helmut Sigel and Roland K. O. Sigel. Interrelations between Essential Metal Ions and Human Diseases. Metal Ions in Life Sciences. 13. Springer. pp. 81–137. doi:10.1007/978-94-007-7500-8_4. . .
Brini, Marisa; Call, Tito; Ottolini, Denis; Carafoli, Ernesto (2013). "Chapter 5 Intracellular Calcium Homeostasis and Signaling". In Banci, Lucia (Ed.). Metallomics and the Cell. Metal Ions in Life Sciences. 12. Springer. pp. 119–68. doi:10.1007/978-94-007-5561-1_5. . . electronic-book  ISSN 1559-0836 electronic-ISSN 1868-0402 where they act as a [[second messenger]], in [[neurotransmitter]] release from [[neurons]], in contraction of all [[muscle]] cell types, and in [[fertilization]]. Many [[enzymes]] require calcium ions as a cofactor, those of the [[blood-clotting]] cascade being notable examples. Extracellular calcium is also important for maintaining the potential difference across excitable [[cell membranes]], as well as proper bone formation.
     

  • Calf – is the back portion of the lower leg in . The muscles within the calf correspond to the posterior compartment of the leg. The two largest muscles within this compartment are known together as the and attach to the via the . Several other, smaller muscles attach to the , the , and via long to the .
  • – is a group of diseases involving abnormal with the potential to invade or spread to other parts of the body."Cancer". World Health Organization. 12 September 2018. Retrieved 19 December 2018."Defining Cancer". National Cancer Institute. 17 September 2007. Retrieved 28 March 2018. These contrast with , which do not spread to other parts of the body.
  • – is a small from 5 to 10 (μm) in diameter, and having a wall one thick. They are the smallest blood vessels in the body: they convey blood between the and . These are the site of exchange of many substances with the interstitial fluid surrounding them.
  • – is any substance, , or that promotes , the formation of . This may be due to the ability to damage the or to the disruption of cellular processes.
  • – also called oncogenesis or tumorigenesis, is the formation of a , whereby normal cells are transformed into cancer cells.
  • – a sudden loss of blood flow resulting from the failure of the to effectively pump. Symptoms include loss of consciousness and abnormal or absent breathing.
    (2025). 9780781788991, Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. .
    Some individuals may experience , shortness of breath, or before cardiac arrest. If not treated within minutes, it typically leads to .
  • Cardiac catheterization – (heart cath or just cath), is the insertion of a into a or of the . This is done both for diagnostic and interventional purposes.
  • – (also called heart muscle or myocardium), is one of three types of , with the other two being and muscles. It is an involuntary, striated muscle that constitutes the main tissue of the walls of the . The myocardium forms a thick middle layer between the outer layer of the heart wall (the ) and the inner layer (the ), with blood supplied via the coronary circulation. It is composed of individual heart muscle cells (cardiomyocytes) joined by intercalated discs, encased by fibres and other substances that form the extracellular matrix.
  • – or cardiovascular surgery, is on the or performed by cardiac . It is often used to treat complications of ischemic heart disease (for example, with coronary artery bypass grafting); to correct congenital heart disease; or to treat valvular heart disease from various causes, including , , and . It also includes heart transplantation.
  • – is a branch of dealing with disorders of the as well as parts of the circulatory system.
  • Cardiothoracic surgery – (also known as thoracic surgery) is the field of medicine involved in of organs inside the (the chest)—generally treatment of conditions of the () and ().
  • Cardiovascular disease – (CVD), is a class of diseases that involve the or .
    (2025). 9789241564373, World Health Organization in collaboration with the World Heart Federation and the World Stroke Organization. .
    CVD includes coronary artery diseases (CAD) such as and myocardial infarction (commonly known as a heart attack). Other CVDs include , , hypertensive heart disease, rheumatic heart disease, , , congenital heart disease, valvular heart disease, , , peripheral artery disease, , and venous thrombosis.
  • Carotid artery, common – In anatomy, the left and right common carotid arteries (carotids) 2nd edition, 1989. Entry "carotid" in Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary.) are that supply the head and neck with ; they divide in the neck to form the external and internal carotid arteries.
  • Carotid artery, external – The external carotid artery is a major of the head and neck. It arises from the common carotid artery when it splits into the external and internal carotid artery. It supplies blood to the face and neck.
  • Carotid artery, internal – The internal carotid artery is a major paired , one on each side of the head and neck, in human anatomy. They arise from the common carotid arteries where these bifurcate into the internal and external carotid arteries at cervical vertebral level 3 or 4; the internal carotid artery supplies the brain, while the external carotid nourishes other portions of the head, such as face, scalp, skull, and .
  • Carotid artery stenosis – is a narrowing or constriction of any part of the , usually caused by .
  • – Are the eight small that make up the (or carpus) that connects the to the . In , the main role of the wrist is to facilitate effective positioning of the hand and powerful use of the extensors and flexors of the forearm, and the mobility of individual carpal bones increase the freedom of movements at the wrist.Kingston 2000, pp 126-127
  • Carpal tunnel syndrome – (CTS), is a medical condition due to compression of the as it travels through the at the . The main symptoms are , and in the thumb, index finger, middle finger and the thumb side of the ring fingers.
  • – is a resilient and smooth , a rubber-like padding that covers and protects the ends of long at the , and is a structural component of the , the , the , the , the intervertebral discs, and many other body components. It is not as hard and rigid as , but it is much stiffer and much less flexible than . The matrix of cartilage is made up of .
  • Cartilaginous joint – Cartilaginous joints are connected entirely by ( or ). Cartilaginous joints allow more movement between bones than a but less than the highly mobile . Cartilaginous joints also forms the growth regions of immature long bones and the intervertebral discs of the .
  • – Is a thin tube made from medical grade materials serving a broad range of functions. Catheters are medical devices that can be inserted in the body to treat diseases or perform a surgical procedure. By modifying the material or adjusting the way catheters are manufactured, it is possible to tailor catheters for cardiovascular, urological, gastrointestinal, neurovascular, and ophthalmic applications.
  • Celiac disease – another way of spelling coeliac disease
  • – also called cytology, is a branch of that studies the structure and of the cell, which is the basic unit of . Cell biology is concerned with the properties, metabolic processes, signaling pathways, life cycle, and interactions of the cell with their environment.
  • Central nervous system – (CNS), is the part of the consisting of the and .
  • – is a in the arm. It communicates with the via the median cubital vein at the and is located in the superficial along the anterolateral surface of the biceps brachii muscle. Near the shoulder, the cephalic vein passes between the and (deltopectoral groove) and through the deltopectoral triangle, where it empties into the .
  • – (Latin for "little brain"), is a major feature of the of all . Although usually smaller than the , in some animals such as the fishes it may be as large as or even larger. In humans, the cerebellum plays an important role in . It may also be involved in some such as and as well as in regulating fear and pleasure responses, but its movement-related functions are the most solidly established. The human cerebellum does not initiate movement, but contributes to coordination, precision, and accurate timing: it receives input from of the and from other parts of the brain, and integrates these inputs to fine-tune motor activity. Cerebellar damage produces disorders in fine movement, equilibrium, , and in humans.
  • – is a large part of the containing the (of the two cerebral hemispheres), as well as several subcortical structures, including the , , and . In the , the cerebrum is the uppermost region of the central nervous system. The prosencephalon is the structure from which the cerebrum develops prenatally. In mammals, the dorsal telencephalon, or pallium, develops into the , and the telencephalon, or subpallium, becomes the . The cerebrum is also divided into approximately symmetric left and right cerebral hemispheres. With the assistance of the , the cerebrum controls all voluntary actions in the body.
  • – is a arising from the . It is due to the abnormal growth of cells that have the ability to invade or spread to other parts of the body. Early on, typically no symptoms are seen. Later symptoms may include abnormal , , or . While bleeding after sex may not be serious, it may also indicate the presence of cervical cancer.
  • – or cervix uteri, is the lower part of the in the human female reproductive system. The cervix is usually 2 to 3 cm long (~1 inch) and roughly cylindrical in shape, which changes during . The narrow, central runs along its entire length, connecting the and the lumen of the . The opening into the uterus is called the , and the opening into the vagina is called the . The lower part of the cervix, known as the vaginal portion of the cervix (or ectocervix), bulges into the top of the vagina.
  • – The cheeks constitute the area of the below the and between the and the left or right . "Buccal" means relating to the cheek. In humans, the region is innervated by the . The area between the inside of the cheek and the teeth and gums is called the or buccal pouch or buccal cavity and forms part of the .
  • – is the area of the below the lower and including the mandibular prominence.
    (2025). 9780072495850, McGraw-Hill Higher Education.
    It is formed by the lower front of the .
  • Chronic fatigue syndrome – (CFS), also referred to as myalgic encephalomyelitis (ME), is a medical condition characterized by long-term fatigue and other persistent symptoms that limit a person's ability to carry out ordinary daily activities.Guideline 53: Chronic fatigue syndrome/myalgic encephalomyelitis (or encephalopathy). London: National Institute for Health and Clinical Excellence. 2007. .
  • – is a ring of Schachar, Ronald A. (2012). "Anatomy and Physiology." (Chapter 4) . in the 's middle layer () that controls accommodation for viewing objects at varying distances and regulates the flow of into Schlemm's canal. It changes the shape of the lens within the eye, not the size of the pupil which is carried out by the sphincter pupillae muscle and .
  • – The space between the anterior surface of the of the eye and the posterior surface of the base of the iris. It is one of the sites for implantation.Schnaudigel OE. Anatomie des Sulcus ciliaris Anatomy. Fortschr Ophthalmol. 1990;87(4):388-9. German. PMID 2210569.
  • Circulatory system – The circulatory system, also called the cardiovascular system or the vascular system, is an organ system that permits to circulate and transport (such as and ), , , , and to and from the cells in the body to provide nourishment and help in , and pH, and maintain .
  • – also known as the collar bone, is a that serves as a between the and the . There are two, one on the right, and one on the left side of the trunk. Along with the shoulder blade, the clavicles make up the . The clavicle has many functions. It connects the axial and appendicular skeleton in conjunction with the scapula, helps extend range of motion, and protects neurovascular structures.
  • – (or outpatient clinic or ambulatory care clinic) is a healthcare facility that is primarily focused on the care of . Clinics can be privately operated or publicly managed and funded.
  • Clinical research – is a branch of healthcare science that determines the safety and effectiveness () of , , and treatment regimens intended for human use. These may be used for prevention, treatment, diagnosis or for relieving symptoms of a disease. Clinical research is different from clinical practice. In clinical practice established treatments are used, while in clinical research evidence is collected to establish a treatment.
  • – Coeliac disease or celiac disease is a long-term autoimmune disorder that primarily affects the ."Celiac Disease". NIDDKD. June 2015. Archivedfrom the original on 13 March 2016. Retrieved 17 March 2016. Classic symptoms include gastrointestinal problems such as chronic , abdominal distention, , loss of appetite and among children failure to grow normally. This often begins between six months and two years of age. Non-classic symptoms are more common, especially in people older than two years. There may be mild or absent gastrointestinal symptoms, a wide number of or no obvious symptoms. Coeliac disease was first described in childhood; however, it may develop at any age. It is associated with other autoimmune diseases, such as diabetes mellitus type 1 and , among others.
  • Colorectal surgery – is a field in medicine dealing with disorders of the , , and colon.
  • Common carotid artery – In anatomy, the left and right common carotid arteries (carotids) ) are that supply the head and neck with ; they divide in the neck to form the external and internal carotid arteries.
  • – also known simply as a cold, is a infectious disease of the upper respiratory tract that primarily affects the . The , , and may also be affected. Signs and symptoms may appear less than two days after exposure to the virus. These may include , , , , , and ."Common Colds: Protect Yourself and Others". CDC. 6 October 2015. Archived from the original on 5 February 2016. Retrieved 4 February 2016. People usually recover in seven to ten days, but some symptoms may last up to three weeks. Occasionally, those with other may develop .
  • Common iliac artery – The common iliac arteries are two large that originate from the aortic bifurcation at the level of the fourth . They end in front of the sacroiliac joint, one on either side, and each bifurcates into the external and internal iliac arteries.
  • Common iliac vein – The common iliac veins are formed by the external iliac veins and internal iliac veins. The left and right common iliac veins come together in the at the level of the , forming the inferior vena cava. They drain from the and lower limbs. Both common iliac veins are accompanied along their course by common iliac arteries.

  • Coronary arteries – are the () of coronary circulation, which transports to the actual . The heart requires a continuous supply of oxygen to function and survive, much like any other tissue or organ of the body.
  • – also callosal commissure, is a wide, thick consisting of a flat bundle of commissural fibers, beneath the in the . The corpus callosum is only found in placental mammals. It spans part of the longitudinal fissure, connecting the left and right cerebral hemispheres, enabling communication between them. It is the largest structure in the , about ten centimetres in length and consisting of 200–300 million projections.
  • – are the that emerge directly from the (including the ), in contrast to (which emerge from segments of the ).
    (2025). 9781118492017, Wiley-Blackwell.
    Ten of the cranial nerves originate in the brainstem. Cranial nerves relay information between the brain and parts of the body, primarily to and from regions of the head and neck.
    (2025). 9780443066849, Churchill Livingstone/Elsevier.
  • – is a substance or procedure that ends a medical condition, such as a , a surgical operation, a change in lifestyle or even a philosophical mindset that helps end a person's sufferings; or the state of being healed, or cured.
  • – is a branch of that is concerned with how the relate to cell behaviour, particularly to their behaviour during and .
  • – are a broad and loose category of small (~5–20 ) that are important in . Cytokines are , and cannot cross the lipid bilayer of cells to enter the cytoplasm.


D
  • Decompression sickness – is a condition caused by inert gas bubbles forming in supersaturated tissues after a reduction in ambient pressure, and either obstructing perfusion or causing local damage.
  • Deep circumflex iliac vein – is formed by the union of the of the deep iliac circumflex artery, and joins the external iliac vein about 2 cm. above the inguinal ligament. It also receives small tributary branches from the thoracoepigastric vein
  • Deep temporal arteries – The deep temporal arteries, two in number, anterior and posterior, ascend between the and the . They supply the muscle, and anastomose with the middle temporal artery. The anterior communicates with the by means of small branches which perforate the and great wing of the sphenoid.
  • Definitive treatment – Medical treatment generally accepted as most appropriate for the condition.
  • – is the forming the rounded contour of the . Anatomically, it appears to be made up of three distinct sets of fibers though suggests that it consists of at least seven groups that can be independently coordinated by the .
  • – also known as Dental and Oral Medicine, is a branch of that consists of the study, , prevention, and treatment of , disorders, and conditions of the , commonly in the but also the , and of adjacent and related structures and tissues, particularly in the maxillofacial (jaw and facial) area.
  • – also known as eczema, is a group of diseases that result in of the .
    (2025). 9781447128977, Springer Science & Business Media. .
    These diseases are characterized by , and a . In cases of short duration, there may be small , while in long-term cases the skin may become . The area of skin involved can vary from small to the entire body."Handout on Health: Atopic Dermatitis (A type of eczema)". NIAMS. May 2013. Archived from the original on 30 May 2015. Retrieved 29 July 2016.
  • Diagnosis – Medical diagnosis (abbreviated DxSee for variants. or DS) is the process of determining which or condition explains a person's and . It is most often referred to as diagnosis with the context being implicit. The information required for diagnosis is typically collected from a and physical examination of the person seeking medical care. Often, one or more diagnostic procedures, such as , are also done during the process. Sometimes posthumous diagnosis is considered a kind of medical diagnosis.
  • Diabetes mellitus – (DM), commonly known as diabetes, is a group of metabolic disorders characterized by a high blood sugar level over a prolonged period. Symptoms of high blood sugar include frequent urination, , and ."Diabetes Fact sheet N°312". WHO. October 2013. Archived from the original on 26 August 2013. Retrieved 25 March 2014. If left untreated, diabetes can cause many complications. Acute complications can include diabetic ketoacidosis, hyperosmolar hyperglycemic state, or death. Serious long-term complications include cardiovascular disease, , chronic kidney disease, foot ulcers, and damage to the eyes.
  • Dietary reference intake – (DRI), is a system of recommendations from the Institute of Medicine (IOM) of the National Academies (United States).
  • Differential diagnosis – is the distinguishing of a particular or condition from others that present similar clinical features.
  • – The human digestive system consists of the gastrointestinal tract plus the accessory organs of digestion (the , , , , and ). Digestion involves the breakdown of food into smaller and smaller components, until they can be absorbed and assimilated into the body.
  • – is an abnormal condition in an organism, or part of it, that negatively affects structure or function. Disease can be caused by external factors, or internal dysfunctions, such as abnormal immune responses.


E
  • – is the organ of and, in mammals, balance. In mammals, the ear is usually described as having three parts—the , the and the . The outer ear consists of the pinna and the . Since the outer ear is the only visible portion of the ear in most animals, the word "ear" often refers to the external part alone. The middle ear includes the and the three . The inner ear sits in the , and contains structures which are key to several senses: the semicircular canals, which enable balance and eye tracking when moving; the utricle and , which enable balance when stationary; and the , which enables hearing. The ears of are placed somewhat symmetrically on either side of the head, an arrangement that aids sound localisation.
  • Otitis is a general term for or of the , in both humans and other animals. It is subdivided into the following:
: , external otitis, or "swimmer's ear", involves the and . In external otitis, the ear hurts when touched or pulled.
: , or middle ear infection, involves the . In otitis media, the ear is infected or clogged with fluid behind the ear drum, in the normally air-filled middle-ear space. This very common childhood infection sometimes requires a surgical procedure called and tube insertion.
: , or , involves the . The inner ear includes sensory organs for balance and hearing. When the inner ear is inflamed, vertigo is a common symptom.
  • – is the visible joint between the upper and lower parts of the . It includes prominent landmarks such as the , the , the lateral and medial epicondyles, and the elbow joint. The elbow joint is the between the in the and the radius and in the which allows the forearm and hand to be moved towards and away from the body.
  • – is the branch of that studies the prenatal development of (sex cells), , and development of and . Additionally, embryology encompasses the study of disorders that occur before birth, known as .
  • Emergency medicine – also known as accident and emergency medicine, is the medical specialty concerned with the care of or requiring immediate medical attention. Emergency physicians care for unscheduled and undifferentiated patients of all ages. As first-line providers, their primary responsibility is to initiate resuscitation and stabilization and to start investigations and interventions to diagnose and treat illnesses in the acute phase.
  • – is a chemical messenger system comprising feedback loops of released by internal of an directly into the circulatory system, regulating distant target organs. In , the major are the and the . In , the is the neural control center for all endocrine systems. The study of the endocrine system and its disorders is known as . Endocrinology is a branch of internal medicine.
    (2025). 9780321861580, Pearson Education, Inc.
  • – is a branch of and dealing with the , its diseases, and its specific secretions known as . It is also concerned with the integration of developmental events proliferation, growth, and differentiation, and the psychological or behavioral activities of , growth and development, tissue function, , , respiration, , mood, stress, , movement, , and sensory perception caused by . Specializations include behavioral endocrinologyNelson, R. J. 2005. An Introduction to Behavioral Endocrinology, Fourth Edition. Sinauer Associates, Sunderland, MA. and comparative endocrinology.
  • – is the study and analysis of the distribution (who, when, and where), patterns and of health and disease conditions in defined . It is a cornerstone of , and shapes policy decisions and evidence-based practice by identifying for disease and targets for preventive healthcare. Epidemiologists help with study design, collection, and statistical analysis of data, amend interpretation and dissemination of results (including and occasional systematic review). Epidemiology has helped develop used in clinical research, studies, and, to a lesser extent, in the biological sciences.
    (2025). 9780199976737, Oxford University Press. .
  • – is a leaf-shaped flap in the throat that prevents food from entering the windpipe and the lungs. It stands open during breathing, allowing air into the larynx. During swallowing, it closes to prevent aspiration of food into the lungs, forcing the swallowed liquids or food to go along the esophagus toward the stomach instead. It is thus the valve that diverts passage to either the trachea or the esophagus.
  • – is a group of neurological disorders characterized by recurrent epileptic seizures. Epileptic seizures are episodes that can vary from brief and nearly undetectable periods to long periods of vigorous shaking."Epilepsy Fact sheet". WHO. February 2016. Archivedfrom the original on 11 March 2016. Retrieved 4 March 2016. These episodes can result in physical injuries, including occasionally . In epilepsy, seizures have a tendency to recur and, as a rule, have no immediate underlying cause. Isolated seizures that are provoked by a specific cause such as poisoning are not deemed to represent epilepsy.Fisher R, van Emde Boas W, Blume W, Elger C, Genton P, Lee P, Engel J (2005). "Epileptic seizures and epilepsy: definitions proposed by the International League Against Epilepsy (ILAE) and the International Bureau for Epilepsy (IBE)". Epilepsia. 46 (4): 470–2. doi:10.1111/j.0013-9580.2005.66104.x. .
  • Erectile dysfunction – (ED), also called impotence, is the type of sexual dysfunction in which the fails to become or stay during . It is the most common sexual problem in men.Cunningham GR, Rosen RC. Overview of male sexual dysfunction. In: UpToDate, Martin KA (Ed), UpToDate, Waltham, MA, 2018. Through its connection to and to problems in sexual relationships, erectile dysfunction can cause psychological harm.
  • Erector spinae muscles – The erector spinae or spinal erectors is a set of muscles that straighten and rotate the .
  • – The esophagus, () or oesophagus (; see spelling differences) (), informally known as the food pipe or gullet, is an organ in through which passes, aided by , from the to the . The esophagus is a tube, about long in adults, which travels behind the and , passes through the diaphragm and empties into the uppermost region of the . During swallowing, the tilts backwards to prevent food from going down the and lungs.
  • Extensor pollicis brevis muscle – In , the extensor pollicis brevis is a on the dorsal side of the . It lies on the medial side of, and is closely connected with, the abductor pollicis longus.
  • Extensor pollicis et indicis communis muscle – In , the extensor pollicis et indicis communis is an aberrant muscle in the posterior compartment of forearm. It was first described in 1863. The muscle has a from 0.5% to 4%.
  • Extensor pollicis longus muscle – In , the extensor pollicis longus muscle (EPL) is a located dorsally on the . It is much larger than the extensor pollicis brevis, the origin of which it partly covers and acts to stretch the together with this muscle.
  • External carotid artery – is a major of the head and neck. It arises from the common carotid artery when it splits into the external and internal carotid artery. External carotid artery supplies blood to the face and neck.
  • External iliac artery – The external iliac arteries are two major which bifurcate off the common iliac arteries anterior to the of the .
  • External iliac vein – The external iliac veins are large that connect the to the common iliac veins. Their origin is at the inferior margin of the inguinal ligaments and they terminate when they join the internal iliac veins (to form the common iliac veins). Both external iliac veins are accompanied along their course by external iliac arteries.
  • External jugular vein – receives the greater part of the blood from the exterior of the and the deep parts of the , being formed by the junction of the posterior division of the retromandibular vein with the posterior auricular vein.
  • – The human eye is a sense organ that reacts to and allows vision. and cells in the are photoreceptive cells which are able to detect and convey this information to the . Eyes signal information which is used by the brain to elicit the perception of color, shape, depth, movement, and other features. The eye is part of the sensory nervous system. Similar to the , the human eye's non-image-forming photosensitive ganglion cells in the retina receive light signals which affect adjustment of the size of the pupil, regulation and suppression of the hormone , and entrainment of the .


F
  • – is the front of an animal's head that features three of the head's , the eyes, nose, and mouth, and through which animals express many of their .
    (2025). 9781605476520, Lippincott Williams & Wilkins.
    The face is crucial for human identity, and damage such as scarring or developmental deformities affects the psyche adversely.
  • – The fallopian tubes, also known as uterine tubes or salpinges (singular salpinx), are tubes that stretch from the to the , and are part of the female reproductive system. The fertilized egg passes through the fallopian tubes from the ovaries of to the uterus. The fallopian tube is simple columnar epithelium with hair-like extensions called which carry the fertilized egg. In other animals, the equivalent of a fallopian tube is an .
  • Fellowship (medicine) – is the period of medical training, in the United States and Canada, that a , , or may undertake after completing a specialty training program (residency). During this time (usually more than one year), the physician is known as a fellow. Fellows are capable of acting as an attending physician or a consultant physician in the specialist field in which they were trained, such as Internal Medicine or . After completing a fellowship in the relevant sub-specialty, the physician is permitted to practice without direct supervision by other physicians in that sub-specialty, such as or .
  • Female reproductive system – is made up of the internal and external that function in of new . In humans, the female reproductive system is immature at birth and develops to maturity at to be able to produce , and to carry a to full term. The internal sex organs are the , , and . The uterus or womb accommodates the which develops into the foetus. The uterus also produces and uterine secretions which help the transit of to the . The ovaries produce the ova (). The external sex organs are also known as the genitals and these are the organs of the including the , , and vaginal opening. The vagina is connected to the uterus at the .
    (2025). 9781118373767, Wiley-Blackwell.
  • – is a large in the and the main arterial supply to the thigh and leg. It enters the thigh from behind the inguinal ligament as the continuation of the external iliac artery.
  • – is a nerve in the that supplies skin on the upper thigh and inner leg, and the muscles that extend the knee.
  • – In the , the femoral vein is a blood vessel that accompanies the in the . It begins at the (an opening in the muscle) and is a continuation of the . It ends at the inferior margin of the inguinal ligament, where it becomes the external iliac vein. The femoral vein bears valves which are mostly bicuspid and whose number is variable between individuals and often between left and right leg.
  • – The femur, or thigh bone, is the of the in , the largest bone of the human body. The articulates with the in the forming the , while the distal part of the femur articulates with the and , forming the .
  • – Is the largest branch of the (V1), itself a branch of the (CN V).
    (2025). 9780702052309
    The frontal nerve branches from the ophthalmic nerve immediately before entering the superior orbital fissure. In then travels superolateral to the annulus of Zinn between the and inferior ophthalmic vein. After entering the orbit it travels anteriorly between the roof periosteum and the levator palpebrae superioris. Midway between the apex and base of the orbit it divides into two branches, the supratrochlear nerve and supraorbital nerve. The two branches of the frontal nerve provide sensory innervation to the skin of the , mucosa of the , and the skin of the .


G
  • – In , the gallbladder is a small hollow organ where is stored and concentrated before it is released into the . In humans, the pear-shaped gallbladder lies beneath the , although the structure and position of the gallbladder can vary significantly among animal species. It receives and stores bile, produced by the liver, via the common hepatic duct and releases it via the common bile duct into the , where the bile helps in the digestion of .
  • – is a that fuses with another haploid cell during in that reproduce sexually. Gametes are an organism's reproductive cells, also referred to as sex cells.
  • – is a group of neuron cell bodies in the peripheral nervous system. In the somatic nervous system this includes dorsal root ganglia and trigeminal ganglia among a few others. In the autonomic nervous system there are both sympathetic and parasympathetic ganglia which contain the cell bodies of postganglionic sympathetic and parasympathetic neurons respectively.
  • Gastrocnemius muscle – (plural gastrocnemii) is a superficial two-headed muscle that is in the back part of the lower leg of . It runs from its two heads just above the to the , a three joint muscle (knee, ankle and subtalar joints). The muscle is named via , from γαστήρ ( gaster) 'belly' or 'stomach' and κνήμη ( knḗmē) 'leg', meaning 'stomach of leg' (referring to the bulging shape of the calf).
  • – Gastroenterology heading gastroenterology is the branch of focused on the and its disorders. affecting the gastrointestinal tract, which include the from into , along the , are the focus of this speciality.
  • Gastrointestinal tract – The gastrointestinal tract, ( GI tract, GIT, digestive tract, digestion tract, alimentary canal) is the tract from the to the which includes all the organs of the in humans and other . Food taken in through the mouth is to extract nutrients and absorb energy, and the waste expelled as . The , , and are all part of the gastrointestinal tract. Gastrointestinal is an adjective meaning of or pertaining to the and intestines. A tract is a collection of related anatomic structures or a series of connected body organs.
  • – (also called human gene transfer) is a field which focuses on the utilization of the therapeutic delivery of into a patient's cells as a drug to treat disease.
    (2025). 9789814675819, World Scientific.
  • – is a specialty that focuses on contents including , , , , , , , appendix and , and often the gland (depending on local referral patterns). They also deal with diseases involving the , , , trauma, Peripheral artery disease and and perform endoscopic procedures such as and .
  • – is a branch of concerned with the study of , genetic variation, and in .
    (2025). 9780716735205, W.H. Freeman.
    (2025). 9780763735272, Jones & Bartlett Learning.
  • Genitourinary system – The genitourinary system, or urogenital system, are the of the reproductive system and the . These are grouped together because of their proximity to each other, their common embryological origin and the use of common pathways, like the . Also, because of their proximity, the systems are sometimes imaged together.
  • – or geriatric medicine, is a specialty that focuses on health care of . Geriatrics separation from internal medicine It aims to promote by preventing and treating and in . There is no set age at which patients may be under the care of a geriatrician, or geriatric physician, a physician who specializes in the care of elderly people. Rather, this decision is determined by the individual patient's needs, and the availability of a specialist. It is important to note the difference between geriatrics, the care of aged people, and , which is the study of the process itself. The term geriatrics comes from the γέρων geron meaning "old man", and ιατρός iatros meaning "healer". However, geriatrics is sometimes called medical gerontology.
  • – A gonad, sex gland, or reproductive gland is a mixed gland that produces the (sex cells) and sex hormones of an organism. In the of the species the reproductive cells are the , and in the the reproductive cells are the . The male gonad, the , produces sperm in the form of . The female gonad, the , produces egg cells. Both of these gametes are cells. Some animals have a type of gonad called an .
  • – is a form of inflammatory arthritis characterized by recurrent attacks of a red, tender, hot, and . Pain typically comes on rapidly, reaching maximal intensity in less than 12 hours. The joint at the base of the big toe is affected in about half of cases. It may also result in , , or urate nephropathy.
  • – is the most superficial muscle on the medial side of the . It is thin and flattened, broad above, narrow and tapering below.
  • Great saphenous vein – ( GSV, alternately " long saphenous vein"; ) is a large, subcutaneous, of the . It is the longest vein in the body, running along the length of the lower limb, returning blood from the , and to the at the .
  • The guarding reflex in the is the gradual tightening of the external urethral sphincter, which prevents from exiting the as the bladder fills and pressure on the sphincter increases. At low levels of pressure this occurs unconsciously.British Journal of Urology (1997), 80, 940–945 The guarding reflex revisited
J.M. PARK, D.A. BLOOM and E.J . McGUIRE* Section of Urology, Department of Surgery, University of Michigan Medical School, Ann Arbor, Michigan, and *Department of Urology, University of Texas Medical School Houston, Texas, USA


H


I
  • Iliac artery, common – The common iliac arteries are two large that originate from the aortic bifurcation at the level of the fourth . They end in front of the , one on either side, and each bifurcates into the external and internal iliac arteries.
  • Iliac artery, external – The external iliac arteries are two major arteries which bifurcate off the common iliac arteries anterior to the of the pelvis. They proceed anterior and inferior along the medial border of the psoas major muscles. They exit the pelvic girdle posterior and inferior to the inguinal ligament about one third laterally from the insertion point of the inguinal ligament on the at which point they are referred to as the .
    (2025). 9780471229346, John Wiley & Sons, Inc..
    The external iliac artery is usually the artery used to attach the renal artery to the recipient of a kidney transplant.
  • Ilium – (plural ilia), is the uppermost and largest part of the , and appears in most including and , but not . All reptiles have an ilium except , although some snake species have a tiny bone which is considered to be an ilium.
(2025). 9780849323218, . .
The ilium of the is divisible into two parts, the body and the wing; the separation is indicated on the top surface by a curved line, the arcuate line, and on the external surface by the margin of the .
  • – is a network of biological processes that protects an against . It detects and responds to a wide variety of , from to , as well as objects such as wood , distinguishing them from the organism's own healthy tissue. Many species have two major subsystems of the immune system. The innate immune system provides a preconfigured response to broad groups of situations and stimuli. The adaptive immune system provides a tailored response to each stimulus by learning to recognize molecules it has previously encountered. Both use and cells to perform their functions.
  • Immunohistochemistry
  • – is a branch of that covers the study of in all . Janeway's Immunobiology textbook Searchable free online version at the National Center for Biotechnology Information Immunology charts, measures, and contextualizes the functioning of the immune system in states of both health and diseases; malfunctions of the immune system in immunological disorders (such as autoimmune diseases, hypersensitivities, immune deficiency, and transplant rejection); and the physical, chemical, and physiological characteristics of the components of the immune system , in situ, and . Immunology has applications in numerous disciplines of medicine, particularly in the fields of organ transplantation, oncology, rheumatology, virology, bacteriology, parasitology, psychiatry, and dermatology.
  • Iliac vein, common – In , the common iliac veins are formed by the external iliac veins and internal iliac veins. The left and right common iliac veins come together in the at the level of the , forming the inferior vena cava. They drain from the and lower limbs. Both common iliac veins are accompanied along their course by common iliac arteries.
  • Iliac vein, deep circumflex
  • Iliac vein, external
  • Iliac vein, internal
  • Infectious diseases (medical specialty)
  • Inferior oblique muscle
  • Inferior thyroid artery
  • Inferior vena cava
  • Inspection (medicine)
  • Integumentary system
  • Intensive care medicine
  • Internal carotid artery
  • Internal iliac vein
  • Internal jugular vein
  • Internal medicine
  • Internship (medicine)
  • Interventional cardiology
  • Interventional radiology


J
  • - also known as icterus, is a or pigmentation of the and whites of the eyes due to high bilirubin levels.
    (2025). 9780323075855, Elsevier Health Sciences. .
    It is commonly associated with . The may be pale and the urine dark.
    (2025). 9780198567820, Oxford University Press. .
    Jaundice in babies occurs in over half in the first week following birth and does not pose a serious threat in most. If levels in babies are very high for too long, a type of brain damage, known as , may occur.
  • – The jaw is any opposable articulated structure at the entrance of the , typically used for grasping and manipulating food. The term jaws is also broadly applied to the whole of the structures constituting the vault of the mouth and serving to open and close it and is part of the of humans and most animals.
  • - is the second part of the in and most higher vertebrates, including , , and . Its lining is specialised for the absorption by of small nutrient which have been previously digested by in the .
  • – A joint or articulation (or articular surface) is the connection made between in the body which link the into a functional whole.
    (2025). 9780736036825, Human Kinetics. .
    Saladin, Ken. Anatomy & Physiology. 7th ed. McGraw-Hill Connect. Web. p.274 They are constructed to allow for different degrees and types of movement. Some joints, such as the , , and , are self-lubricating, almost frictionless, and are able to withstand compression and maintain heavy loads while still executing smooth and precise movements. Other joints such as sutures between the bones of the permit very little movement (only during birth) in order to protect the brain and the . The connection between a tooth and the is also called a joint, and is described as a fibrous joint known as a . Joints are classified both structurally and functionally.
    (2025). 9780443071683, Elsevier Churchill Livingstone. .
  • – The jugular veins are that take deoxygenated blood from the back to the via the superior vena cava.


K
  • – The production of horny cells in the .
  • Keratopathy-
  • – The kidneys are two reddish-brown bean-shaped found in . They are located on the left and right in the retroperitoneal space, and in adult humans are about in length. They receive blood from the paired ; blood exits into the paired . Each kidney is attached to a , a tube that carries excreted to the .
  • – In and other , the knee joins the with the and consists of two : one between the and (tibiofemoral joint), and one between the femur and (patellofemoral joint).
    (2025). 9788184191813, Fusion Books.
    It is the largest joint in the human body. Republished as: The knee is a modified , which permits and extension as well as slight internal and external rotation. The knee is vulnerable to injury and to the development of .
  • Korsakoff syndrome- (KS) is an disorder caused by deficiency typically associated with prolonged use of alcohol. The and are named after , the Russian neuropsychiatrist who discovered it during the late 19th century. This neurological disorder is caused by a lack of in the , and is also exacerbated by the neurotoxic effects of alcohol. When Wernicke encephalopathy accompanies Korsakoff syndrome the combination is called Wernicke–Korsakoff syndrome; however, a recognized episode of Wernicke encephalopathy is not always obvious.


L
  • –The large intestine, also known as the large bowel or colon, is the last part of the gastrointestinal tract and of the in . Water is absorbed here and the remaining waste material is stored as before being removed by .
  • Laryngeal prominence – The Adam's apple, or laryngeal prominence, colloquially known as the neck triangle, is the lump or protrusion in the human formed by the angle of the thyroid cartilage surrounding the seen especially in males.
  • Laryngeal ventricle – (also called the ventricle of the larynx, laryngeal sinus, or Morgagni's sinus) Medical Definition of Laryngeal sinus in lexic.us. Updated 05 Mar 2000 is a fossa, situated between the and on either side, and extending nearly their entire length. There is also a sinus of Morgagni in the .
  • – is the fibrous connective tissue that connects to other bones.
  • – are a visible body part at the mouth of many animals, including humans. Lips are soft, movable, and serve as the opening for food intake and in the articulation of sound and speech. Human lips are a tactile sensory organ, and can be an when used in and other acts of .
  • – or pinky finger, also known as the fifth digit, or pinkie, is the most ulnar and smallest of the human , opposite the , and next to the .
  • – is an organ only found in vertebrates which various , synthesizes proteins and produces biochemicals necessary for and growth. In humans, it is located in the right upper quadrant of the , below the diaphragm. Its other roles in include the regulation of , decomposition of red blood cells, and the production of .
  • Lupus erythematosus
  • - Cancer of the .


M
  • Major depressive disorder – (MDD), also known simply as depression, is a characterized by at least two weeks of pervasive . Low , in normally enjoyable activities, low energy, and without a clear cause are common symptoms.""Depression". NIMH. May 2016. Archived from the original on 5 August 2016. Retrieved 31 July 2016. Those affected may also occasionally have or . Some people have periods of depression separated by years, while others nearly always have symptoms present.American Psychiatric Association (2013), Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (5th ed.), Arlington: American Psychiatric Publishing, pp. 160–68, , retrieved 22 July 2016 Major depression is more severe and lasts longer than , which is a normal part of life.
  • Male reproductive system
  • – The mandible, lower jaw or jawbone is the largest, strongest and lowest in the human face.Gray's Anatomy – The Anatomical Basis of Clinical Practice, 40th Edition, p. 530 It forms the lower and holds the lower in place. The mandible sits beneath the . It is the only movable bone of the skull (discounting the of the middle ear).
    (2025). 9780470646083, Wiley.
  • – In human anatomy, the masseter is one of the muscles of mastication. Found only in mammals, it is particularly powerful in to facilitate chewing of plant matter.
    (1977). 003910284X, Holt-Saunders International. 003910284X
    The most obvious muscle of mastication is the masseter muscle, since it is the most superficial and one of the strongest.
  • Maternal-fetal medicine – (MFM), also known as perinatology, is a branch of medicine that focuses on managing health concerns of the and prior to, during, and shortly after .
  • – in , is the upper fixed (not fixed in ) of the formed from the fusion of two maxillary bones. In humans, the upper jaw includes the in the front of the . Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary.
    (2025). 9781437724196, Elsevier.
    The two maxillary bones are fused at the intermaxillary suture, forming the anterior nasal spine. This is similar to the (lower jaw), which is also a fusion of two mandibular bones at the mandibular symphysis. The mandible is the movable part of the jaw.
  • – Medical College Admission Test.
  • Medical classification – A medical classification is a list of standardized codes used in the process of and .
  • – The practice of assigning statistical codes to medical statements, such as those made during a hospital stay. Closely related to .
  • Medical College Admission Test – (MCAT), is a computer-based standardized examination for prospective in the , , , and Caribbean Islands. It is designed to assess problem solving, critical thinking, written analysis and knowledge of scientific concepts and principles.
  • – is any device intended to be used for medical purposes. Medical devices benefit patients by helping health care providers diagnose and treat patients and helping patients overcome sickness or disease, improving their quality of life. Significant potential for are inherent when using a device for medical purposes and thus medical devices must be proved safe and effective with reasonable assurance before regulating governments allow marketing of the device in their country. As a general rule, as the associated risk of the device increases the amount of testing required to establish safety and efficacy also increases. Further, as associated risk increases the potential benefit to the patient must also increase.
  • Medical diagnosis – (abbreviated Dx or DS) is the process of determining which or condition explains a person's and . It is most often referred to as diagnosis with the context being implicit. The information required for diagnosis is typically collected from a and physical examination of the person seeking medical care. Often, one or more diagnostic procedures, such as , are also done during the process. Sometimes posthumous diagnosis is considered a kind of medical diagnosis.
  • Medical laboratory
  • Medical speciality
  • Medulla oblongata
  • Middle temporal artery
  • Molecular biology
  • Musculoskeletal system


N
  • Nail – A nail is a claw-like keratinous plate at the tip of the fingers and toes in most . Nails correspond to found in other animals. Fingernails and toenails are made of a tough protective called which is found in the hooves, hair, claws and horns of .
  • Nanobiotechnology – Nanobiotechnology, bionanotechnology, and nanobiology are terms that refer to the intersection of and .Ehud Gazit, Plenty of room for biology at the bottom: An introduction to bionanotechnology. Imperial College Press, 2007, Given that the subject is one that has only emerged very recently, bionanotechnology and nanobiotechnology serve as blanket terms for various related technologies.
  • – is a large, air-filled space above and behind the in the middle of the face. The divides the cavity into two cavities, also known as fossae. Each cavity is the continuation of one of the two . The nasal cavity is the uppermost part of the respiratory system and provides the nasal passage for inhaled air from the to the and rest of the respiratory tract. The paranasal sinuses surround and drain into the nasal cavity.
  • – The upper portion of the pharynx, the nasopharynx, extends from the base of the to the upper surface of the .Clinical Head and Neck and Functional Neuroscience Course Notes, 2008-2009, Uniformed Services University of the Health Sciences School of Medicine, Bethesda, Maryland It includes the space between the and the soft palate and lies above the oral cavity. The , also known as the pharyngeal tonsils, are structures located in the posterior wall of the nasopharynx. Waldeyer's tonsillar ring is an annular arrangement of lymphoid tissue in both the nasopharynx and oropharynx. The nasopharynx is lined by respiratory epithelium that is pseudostratified, columnar, and ciliated.
  • – The navel (clinically known as the umbilicus, colloquially known as the belly button) is a protruding, flat, or hollowed area on the at the attachment site of the . All have a navel.
  • – is a specialty of that concerns with study of the , specifically normal and , the preservation of kidney health, and the treatment of kidney disease, from diet and medication to renal replacement therapy ( and kidney transplantation).
  • – is an enclosed, cable-like bundle of nerve fibres called , in the peripheral nervous system. A nerve transmits electrical impulses and is the basic unit of the peripheral nervous system. A nerve provides a common pathway for the nerve impulses called that are transmitted along each of the to peripheral organs or, in the case of , from the periphery back to the central nervous system. Each axon within the nerve is an extension of an individual , along with other supportive cells such as some that coat the axons in .
  • – is a part of an that coordinates its and information by transmitting to and from different parts of its body. The nervous system detects environmental changes that impact the body, then works in tandem with the to respond to such events.
    (2016). 9781119343738, Wiley (WileyPLUS Products).
  • – is a branch of medicine dealing with disorders of the nervous system. Neurology deals with the diagnosis and treatment of all categories of conditions and disease involving the central and peripheral nervous systems (and their subdivisions, the autonomic and somatic nervous systems), including their coverings, blood vessels, and all effector tissue, such as muscle. Neurological practice relies heavily on the field of , the scientific study of the .
  • – (or neurobiology), is the of the nervous system. It is a multidisciplinary science that combines , , molecular biology, developmental biology, , mathematical modeling, and to understand the fundamental and emergent properties of and .
    (2025). 9780071390118, McGraw-Hill Education.
    (2025). 9780781724685, Lippincott, Williams & Wilkins. .
    (2025). 9780199838721, Oxford University Press.
    (2025). 9784431543305, Springer. .
  • – or neurological surgery, is the medical specialty concerned with the prevention, diagnosis, surgical treatment, and rehabilitation of disorders which affect any portion of the including the , , central and peripheral nervous system, and cerebrovascular system.
  • – The human nose is the most protruding part of the . It bears the and is the first organ of the respiratory system. It is also the principal organ in the . The shape of the is determined by the and the , including the which separates the nostrils and divides the into two. On average the nose of a is larger than that of a .
  • – is a medical specialty involving the application of substances in the diagnosis and treatment of . Nuclear medicine imaging, in a sense, is " done inside out" or "endoradiology" because it records radiation emitting from within the body rather than that is generated by external sources like . In addition, nuclear medicine scans differ from radiology, as the emphasis is not on imaging anatomy, but on the function. For such reason, it is called a physiological imaging modality. Single photon emission computed tomography (SPECT) and positron emission tomography (PET) scans are the two most common imaging modalities in nuclear medicine.
  • – is the that interprets the and other substances in in relation to maintenance, growth, reproduction, and disease of an organism. It includes ingestion, absorption, assimilation, , and .


O
  • Oblique muscle of auricle – The oblique muscle of auricle (oblique auricular muscle or Tod muscle) is an intrinsic muscle of the . The oblique muscle of auricle is placed on the cranial surface of the pinna. It consists of a few fibers extending from the upper and back part of the concha to the convexity immediately above it.This article incorporates text in the public domain from page 1035 of the 20th edition of Gray's Anatomy (1918)
  • – is the field of study concentrated on , and the postpartum period. As a medical specialty, obstetrics is combined with under the discipline known as obstetrics and gynecology (OB/GYN), which is a surgical field.
  • Obstetrics and gynaecology – Obstetrics and gynaecology (British English) or obstetrics and gynecology (American English) is the medical specialty that encompasses the two subspecialties of (covering , , and the postpartum period) and (covering the health of the female reproductive system – , , , and ). It is commonly abbreviated as OB-GYN or OB/GYN in US English, and as obs and gynae or O&G in British English.
  • – is a and the main of the occiput (back and lower part of the ). It is in shape and curved on itself like a shallow dish. The occipital bone overlies the of the . At the base of skull in the occipital bone, there is a large oval opening called the , which allows the passage of the .
  • – or the of smell, is the process of creating the perception of smell.
    (2025). 9780878935727, Sinauer Associates.
    It occurs when an binds to a receptor within the nose, transmitting a signal through the . Olfaction has many purposes, including detecting hazards, , and plays a role in taste.
  • – is a branch of that deals with the prevention, diagnosis, and treatment of . A medical professional who practices oncology is an oncologist.Maureen McCutcheon. Where Have My Eyebrows Gone?. Cengage Learning, 2001. . Page 5.
  • – is a branch of and which deals with the diagnosis and treatment of eye disorders. An ophthalmologist is a specialist in ophthalmology. The credentials include a degree in medicine, followed by additional four to five years of ophthalmology residency training. Ophthalmology residency training programs may require a one-year pre-residency training in internal medicine, pediatrics, or general surgery. Additional specialty training (or fellowship) may be sought in a particular aspect of eye pathology. Ophthalmologists are allowed to use medications to treat eye diseases, implement laser therapy, and perform surgery when needed. Ophthalmologists may participate in academic research on the diagnosis and treatment for eye disorders.
  • – is a health care profession that involves examining the eyes and applicable visual systems for defects or abnormalities as well as prescribing the correction of with or and the treatment of eye diseases.
  • Organ – is a group of tissues with similar functions. Plant life and animal life rely on many organs that co-exist in .
    (2025). 9780071283663, McGraw-Hill Higher Education.
  • Oral and maxillofacial surgery – is a surgical specialty focusing on reconstructive surgery of the , , the , and , , and , as well as facial .
  • Orbicularis oculi muscle
  • Orbicularis oris muscle
  • Orthopedic surgery
  • Otorhinolaryngology


P
(2025). 9780030555077, Saunders College Publishing.
A similar structure is found in , but in most other , the oral and nasal cavities are not truly separated. The palate is divided into two parts, the anterior, bony and the posterior, fleshy (or velum).
(1994). 9780030555077, Saunders College Publishing.
  • – (derived from the Latin root palliare, or "to cloak") is an interdisciplinary medical caregiving approach aimed at optimizing quality of life and mitigating suffering among people with serious, complex illness.
    (2025). 9781889296081, American Association of Hospice and Palliative Medicine.
    Within the published literature, many definitions of palliative care exist; most notably, the World Health Organization describes palliative care as "an approach that improves the quality of life of patients and their families facing the problems associated with life-threatening illness, through the prevention and relief of suffering by means of early identification and impeccable assessment and treatment of pain and other problems, physical, psychosocial, and spiritual." In the past, palliative care was a disease specific approach, but today the World Health Organization takes a more broad approach, that the principles of palliative care should be applied as early as possible to any chronic and ultimately fatal illness.
  • – is the process of using one's hands to check the body, especially while perceiving/diagnosing a disease or illness.
  • – is an organ of the and of . In humans, it is located in the behind the and functions as a . The pancreas has both an and a digestive function. As an , it functions mostly to regulate blood sugar levels, secreting the , , , and pancreatic polypeptide. As a part of the digestive system, it functions as an secreting into the through the . This juice contains , which neutralizes entering the duodenum from the stomach; and , which break down , , and in food entering the duodenum from the stomach.
  • Papillary - In , papillary refers to with projections ("", from Latin, '') that have fibrovascular cores.
  • – is the study of , their hosts, and the relationship between them. As a biological discipline, the scope of parasitology is not determined by the organism or environment in question but by their way of life. This means it forms a synthesis of other disciplines, and draws on techniques from fields such as , , , molecular biology, , , and .
  • Parathyroid glands – are small in the neck of humans and other . Humans usually have four parathyroid glands, located on the back of the in variable locations. The parathyroid gland produces and secretes parathyroid hormone in response to a low blood calcium, which plays a key role in regulating the amount of calcium in the blood and within the bones.
  • Parkinson's disease
  • Pectoralis major muscle
  • Pectoralis minor muscle
  • Percussion (medicine)
  • Peripheral nervous system
  • Peripheral vision
  • Physical examination
  • – A branching network of vessels or nerves.
  • Posterior tibial artery
  • Preventive healthcare
  • Pubis
  • Pulmonary circulation


Q
  • – Tetraplegia, also known as quadriplegia, is caused by illness or injury that results in the partial or total loss of use of all four limbs and torso; is similar but does not affect the arms. The loss is usually sensory and motor, which means that both sensation and control are lost. The paralysis may be or spastic.


R
  • – In , the radial artery is the main of the lateral aspect of the .
  • – is a in the human body that supplies the posterior portion of the upper limb. It innervates the medial and lateral heads of the triceps brachii muscle of the arm, as well as all 12 muscles in the posterior osteofascial compartment of the forearm and the associated joints and overlying skin. It originates from the , carrying fibers from the ventral roots of spinal nerves C5, C6, C7, C8 & T1.
  • – is the medical discipline that uses to diagnose and treat diseases within the body.
  • Radius – The radius, or radial bone, is one of the two large of the , the other being the . It extends from the lateral side of the to the side of the and runs parallel to the ulna. The ulna is usually slightly longer than the radius, but the radius is thicker. Therefore, the radius is considered to be the larger of the two. It is a , prism-shaped and slightly curved longitudinally.
  • – is the final straight portion of the in humans and some other , and the gut in others. The adult human rectum is about long, and begins at the rectosigmoid junction, the end of the , at the level of the third sacral vertebra or the sacral promontory depending upon what definition is used.
    (2025). 9780387248462, Springer.
    Its is similar to that of the sigmoid colon at its commencement, but it is dilated near its termination, forming the . It terminates at the level of the anorectal ring (the level of the sling) or the , again depending upon which definition is used. In humans, the rectum is followed by the which is about long, before the gastrointestinal tract terminates at the . The word rectum comes from the , meaning straight intestine.
  • Rectus abdominis muscle – also known as the abdominal muscle, is a paired running vertically on each side of the anterior wall of the human abdomen, as well as that of some other mammals. There are two parallel muscles, separated by a midline band of connective tissue called the linea alba. It extends from the , and inferiorly, to the and costal cartilages of ribs V to VII superiorly.Gray's Anatomy for students, 2nd edition, Page:176 The proximal attachments are the pubic crest and the pubic symphysis. It attaches distally at the costal cartilages of ribs 5-7 and the xiphoid process of the sternum.
  • Rectus femoris muscle – is one of the four quadriceps muscles of the . The others are the , the vastus intermedius (deep to the rectus femoris), and the . All four parts of the quadriceps muscle attach to the (knee cap) by the quadriceps tendon. The rectus femoris is situated in the middle of the front of the ; it is in shape, and its superficial fibers are arranged in a bipenniform manner, the deep fibers running straight () down to the deep . Its functions are to flex the thigh at the joint and to extend the at the joint. Sportsmedicine: Rectus Femoris . Sportsmedicine.about.com. Retrieved on 2015-09-30.
  • Red blood cell – The most common type of blood cell and the vertebrate's principal means of delivering oxygen to the body tissues — via blood flow through the circulatory system. Red blood cells take up oxygen in the lungs and release it into tissues while squeezing through the body's capillaries.
  • Reproductive system
  • Residency (medicine)
  • Respiratory system


S
The American Heritage Dictionary, Collins Dictionary and Webster's Revised Unabridged Dictionary (1913) give sacra as the only plural.), in , is a large, triangular at the base of the that forms by the fusing of sacral S1S5 between 18 and 30years of age.


T


U
  • – is a found in the that stretches from the to the smallest finger, and when in anatomical position, is found on the medial side of the forearm. It runs parallel to the radius, the other long bone in the forearm. The ulna is usually slightly longer than the radius, but the radius is thicker. Therefore, the radius is considered to be the larger of the two.
  • – is the main , with oxygenated , of the medial aspects of the . It arises from the and terminates in the superficial palmar arch, which joins with the superficial branch of the . It is palpable on the anterior and medial aspect of the .
  • – In , the ulnar nerve is a that runs near the bone. The ulnar collateral ligament of elbow joint is in relation with the ulnar nerve. The nerve is the largest in the human body unprotected by muscle or bone, so injury is common. This nerve is directly connected to the , and the adjacent half of the , innervating the of these fingers, including both front and back of the , perhaps as far back as the fingernail beds.
  • – The ureters are tubes made of that propel from the to the . In the human adult, the ureters are usually long and around in diameter. The ureter is lined by cells, a type of transitional epithelium, and has an additional smooth muscle layer in third closest to the bladder that assists with .
  • – The urethra is a tube that connects the to the for the removal of from the body of both females and males. In females and other , the urethra connects to the urinary meatus above the , whereas in , the female's urethra empties into the .
    (1987). 9780521337922, Cambridge University Press. .
    Females use their urethra only for urinating, but males use their urethra for both urination and .
    (1992). 9780226870137, University of Chicago Press. .
    The external urethral sphincter is a that allows voluntary control over . The internal sphincter, formed by the involuntary lining the bladder neck and urethra, receives its nerve supply by the sympathetic division of the autonomic nervous system. The internal sphincter is present both in males and females.
  • – The urinary bladder, or simply bladder, is a hollow muscular organ in humans and other vertebrates that stores from the before disposal by . In the the bladder is a hollow , and distensible organ that sits on the . Urine enters the bladder via the and exits via the . The typical human bladder will hold between 300 and (10.14 and ) before the urge to empty occurs, but can hold considerably more.
    (2025). 9781455733286, Elsevier Health Sciences. .
    (1999). 9781901865059, CRC Press. .
  • – The urinary system, also known as the renal system or urinary tract, consists of the , , , and the . The purpose of the urinary system is to eliminate waste from the body, regulate blood volume and blood pressure, control levels of and metabolites, and regulate blood pH. The urinary tract is the body's drainage system for the eventual removal of urine. The kidneys have an extensive blood supply via the renal arteries which leave the kidneys via the renal vein. Each kidney consists of functional units called . Following filtration of blood and further processing, wastes (in the form of ) exit the kidney via the ureters, tubes made of smooth muscle fibres that propel urine towards the urinary bladder, where it is stored and subsequently expelled from the body by (). The female and male urinary system are very similar, differing only in the length of the urethra.
  • – also known as genitourinary surgery, is the branch of that focuses on surgical and medical diseases of the male and female system and the male reproductive organs. Organs under the domain of urology include the , , , , , and the male reproductive organs (, , , , , and ).
  • – The uterus or womb is a major female hormone-responsive of the reproductive system in and most other . In the human, the lower end of the uterus, the , opens into the , while the upper end, the fundus, is connected to the . It is within the uterus that the develops during . In the , the uterus develops from the paramesonephric ducts which fuse into the single organ known as a simplex uterus. The uterus has different forms in many other animals and in some it exists as two separate uteri known as a duplex uterus.


V
  • – is a biological preparation that provides active acquired immunity to a particular . A vaccine typically contains an agent that resembles a disease-causing microorganism and is often made from weakened or killed forms of the microbe, its toxins, or one of its surface proteins. The agent stimulates the body's to recognize the agent as a threat, destroy it, and to further recognize and destroy any of the microorganisms associated with that agent that it may encounter in the future. Vaccines can be (to prevent or ameliorate the effects of a future by a natural or "wild" ), or (e.g., , which are being investigated).
  • – In , the vagina is the elastic, muscular part of the female genital tract. In humans, it extends from the to the . The outer vaginal opening is normally partly covered by a membrane called the . At the deep end, the cervix (neck of the ) bulges into the vagina. The vagina allows for sexual intercourse and . It also channels (menses), which occurs in humans and closely related as part of the monthly .
  • – also called ductus deferens, is part of the male reproductive system of many ; these ducts transport from the to the in anticipation of . It is a partially coiled tube which exits the abdominal cavity through the .
  • Vastus intermedius muscle – arises from the front and lateral surfaces of the body of the femur in its upper two-thirds, sitting under the rectus femoris muscle and from the lower part of the lateral intermuscular septum. Its fibers end in a superficial aponeurosis, which forms the deep part of the quadriceps femoris tendon.
  • Vastus lateralis muscle
  • Vena cava, inferior
  • Vena cava, superior
  • Ventricle
  • – is the study of – submicroscopic, parasitic particles of genetic material contained in a protein coat
    (2025). 9780199574858, Oxford University Press. .
    (2025). 9780123849397, Academic Press.
    – and virus-like agents. It focuses on the following aspects of viruses: their structure, classification and evolution, their ways to infect and exploit host cells for reproduction, their interaction with host organism physiology and immunity, the diseases they cause, the techniques to isolate and culture them, and their use in research and therapy. Virology is considered to be a subfield of or of .
  • – (VA), commonly refers to the clarity of vision, but technically rates an examinee's ability to recognize small details with precision. Visual acuity is dependent on optical and neural factors, i.e., (1) the sharpness of the retinal image within the , (2) the health and functioning of the , and (3) the sensitivity of the interpretative faculty of the brain.
    (1997). 9780750698955, Butterworth-Heinemann.
  • – The visual cortex of the is the area of the that processes visual information. It is located in the . Sensory input originating from the travels through the lateral geniculate nucleus in the and then reaches the visual cortex. The area of the visual cortex that receives the sensory input from the lateral geniculate nucleus is the primary visual cortex, also known as visual area 1 (V1), 17, or the striate cortex. The areas consist of visual areas 2, 3, 4, and 5 (also known as V2, V3, V4, and V5, or Brodmann area 18 and all Brodmann area 19).
  • Visual field test – is an eye examination that can detect dysfunction in central and peripheral vision which may be caused by various medical conditions such as , , pituitary disease, or other neurological deficits. Visual field testing can be performed clinically by keeping the subject's gaze fixed while presenting objects at various places within their . Simple manual equipment can be used such as in the tangent screen test or the . When dedicated machinery is used it is called a perimeter.
  • Visual perception – is the ability to interpret the surrounding environment using light in the reflected by the objects in the environment. This is different from , which refers to how clearly a person sees (for example "20/20 vision"). A person can have problems with visual perceptual processing even if they have 20/20 vision.
  • – (also known as vitals) are a group of the four to six most important that indicate the status of the body's (life-sustaining) functions. These measurements are taken to help assess the general physical health of a person, give clues to possible diseases, and show progress toward recovery. The normal ranges for a person's vital signs vary with age, weight, gender, and overall . There are four primary vital signs: , , (), and breathing rate (), often notated as BT, BP, HR, and RR. However, depending on the clinical setting, the vital signs may include other measurements called the "fifth vital sign" or "sixth vital sign". Vital signs are recorded using the internationally accepted standard coding system.
  • – is a group of responsible for increasing intestinal absorption of , , and , and many other biological effects. In humans, the most important compounds in this group are vitamin D3 (also known as ) and vitamin D2 ().
  • – is a surgery to remove some or all of the from the . Anterior vitrectomy entails removing small portions of the vitreous humor from the front structures of the eye—often because these are tangled in an intraocular lens or other structures. Pars plana vitrectomy is a general term for a group of operations accomplished in the deeper part of the eye, all of which involve removing some or all of the vitreous humor—the eye's clear internal jelly.


W
  • – is the part of the between the and . On people with slim bodies, the waist is the narrowest part of the . The waistline refers to the horizontal line where the waist is narrowest, or to the general appearance of the waist.
  • – Warts are typically small, rough, hard growths that are similar in color to the rest of the skin. They typically do not result in other symptoms, except when on the bottom of the feet, where they may be painful. While they usually occur on the hands and feet, they can also affect other locations.Loo, SK; Tang, WY (12 June 2014). "Warts (non-genital)". BMJ Clinical Evidence. 2014. PMC 4054795. . One or many warts may appear. They are not .
  • – is a screening test for hearing performed with a tuning fork. It can detect unilateral (one-sided) conductive hearing loss (middle ear hearing loss) and unilateral sensorineural hearing loss (inner ear hearing loss). The test is named after Ernst Heinrich Weber (1795–1878). Conductive hearing ability is mediated by the middle ear composed of the ossicles: the , the , and the . Sensorineural hearing ability is mediated by the inner ear composed of the cochlea with its internal basilar membrane and attached cochlear nerve (cranial nerve VIII). The outer ear consisting of the pinna, ear canal, and ear drum or tympanic membrane transmits sounds to the middle ear but does not contribute to the conduction or sensorineural hearing ability save for hearing transmissions limited by cerumen impaction (wax collection in the ear canal). The Weber test has had its value as a screening test questioned in the literature.
  • Wernicke–Korsakoff syndrome – (WKS) is the combined presence of Wernicke encephalopathy (WE) and alcoholic Korsakoff syndrome. Due to the close relationship between these two disorders, people with either are usually diagnosed with WKS as a single syndrome. It mainly causes vision changes, and impaired memory.
  • Wernicke's area – also called Wernicke's speech area, is one of the two parts of the that are linked to speech, the other being Broca's area. It is involved in the comprehension of written and spoken language, in contrast to Broca's area, which is involved in the production of language. It is traditionally thought to reside in Brodmann area 22, which is located in the superior temporal gyrus in the dominant cerebral hemisphere, which is the left hemisphere in about 95% of individuals and 60% of left-handed individuals.
  • Whiplash – is a non-medical term describing a range of to the caused by or related to a sudden distortion of the neck associated with extension, although the exact injury mechanisms remain unknown. The term "whiplash" is a . "Cervical acceleration–deceleration" (CAD) describes the mechanism of the injury, while the term "whiplash associated disorders" (WAD) describes the injury sequelae and symptoms.
  • White blood cell – White blood cells (WBCs), also called leukocytes or leucocytes, are the cells of the that are involved in protecting the body against both infectious disease and foreign invaders. All white blood cells are produced and derived from cells in the known as hematopoietic stem cells. Leukocytes are found throughout the body, including the and .
  • – refers to areas of the central nervous system (CNS) that are mainly made up of , also called .
    (2025). 9780878936137, Sinauer Associates.
    Long thought to be passive tissue, white matter affects and brain functions, modulating the distribution of , acting as a and coordinating communication between different brain regions.
  • – is a cognitive system with a limited capacity that can temporarily.
    (1999). 052158325X, Cambridge University Press. 052158325X
    Working memory is important for reasoning and the guidance of decision-making and behavior.
    (2025). 9780071481274, McGraw-Hill Medical.
    Working memory is often used synonymously with short-term memory, but some theorists consider the two forms of memory distinct, assuming that working memory allows for the manipulation of stored information, whereas short-term memory only refers to the short-term storage of information.
    (2025). 9780444531643
    Working memory is a theoretical concept central to cognitive psychology, neuropsychology, and .
  • – In , the wrist is variously defined as 1) the or carpal bones, the complex of eight bones forming the proximal skeletal segment of the ;Behnke 2006, p. 76. "The wrist contains eight bones, roughly aligned in two rows, known as the carpal bones."Moore 2006, p. 485. "The wrist (carpus), the proximal segment of the hand, is a complex of eight carpal bones. The carpus articulates proximally with the forearm at the wrist joint and distally with the five metacarpals. The joints formed by the carpus include the wrist (radiocarpal joint), intercarpal, carpometacarpal and intermetacarpal joints. Augmenting movement at the wrist joint, the rows of carpals glide on each other ... " (2) the wrist joint or radiocarpal joint, the joint between the radius and the and; (3) the anatomical region surrounding the carpus including the distal parts of the bones of the forearm and the proximal parts of the or five metacarpal bones and the series of joints between these bones, thus referred to as wrist joints.Behnke 2006, p. 77. "With the large number of bones composing the wrist (ulna, radius, eight carpas, and five metacarpals), it makes sense that there are many, many joints that make up the structure known as the wrist."Baratz 1999, p. 391. "The wrist joint is composed of not only the radiocarpal and distal radioulnar joints but also the intercarpal articulations." This region also includes the , the anatomical snuff box, bracelet lines, the flexor retinaculum, and the extensor retinaculum. As a consequence of these various definitions, fractures to the carpal bones are referred to as carpal fractures, while fractures such as distal radius fracture are often considered fractures to the wrist.


X
  • – A xanthoma (pl. xanthomas or xanthomata) (condition: xanthomatosis), , is a deposition of yellowish -rich material that can appear anywhere in the body in various disease states.
    (2025). 9780721629216, Saunders Elsevier.
    They are cutaneous manifestations of in which accumulate in large within the skin. They are associated with , both primary and secondary types.


Y
  • – is a tropical of the , and joints caused by the Treponema pallidum pertenue. The disease begins with a round, hard swelling of the skin, 2 to 5 centimeters in diameter. The center may break open and form an . This initial skin lesion typically heals after three to six months."Yaws Fact sheet N°316". World Health Organization. February 2014. Archived from the original on 3 March 2014. Retrieved 27 February 2014. After weeks to years, joints and bones may become painful, may develop, and new skin lesions may appear. The skin of the of the hands and the soles of the feet may become thick and break open. The bones (especially those of the nose) may become misshapen. After five years or more large areas of skin may die, leaving a scar.
  • – is a disease of typically short duration."Yellow fever Fact sheet N°100". World Health Organization. May 2013. Archived from the original on 19 February 2014. Retrieved 23 February 2014. In most cases, symptoms include , , loss of appetite, , muscle pains particularly in the back, and . Symptoms typically improve within five days. In about 15% of people, within a day of improving the fever comes back, abdominal pain occurs, and damage begins causing .
    (2025). 9780702059636, Elsevier Health Sciences. .
    If this occurs, the risk of bleeding and is increased.


Z
  • Zellweger spectrum disorders – are a group of that create the same disease process. The subdivisions of this spectrum are hyperpipecolic acidemia, Infantile Refsum disease, neonatal adrenoleukodystrophy (NALD), and Zellweger syndrome. It can also be referred to as Peroxisomal Biogenesis Disorders, Zellweger Syndrome Spectrum, NALD, Cerebrohepatorenal Syndrome, and ZSS. It can affect many body organs, including the , eyes, and hearing. It is named after .
  • – (ZIKV) (pronounced or ) is a member of the family . It is spread by daytime-active mosquitoes, such as A. aegypti and A. albopictus. Its name comes from the of Uganda, where the virus was first isolated in 1947. Zika virus shares a with the , yellow fever, Japanese encephalitis, and West Nile viruses. Since the 1950s, it has been known to occur within a narrow equatorial belt from Africa to Asia. From 2007 to , the virus spread eastward, across the Pacific Ocean to the Americas, leading to the 2015–2016 Zika virus epidemic.
  • – A zoonosis (plural zoonoses, or zoonotic diseases) is an infectious disease caused by a (an infectious agent, such as a , , or ) that has jumped from a non-human animal (usually a ) to a human."zoonosis". Merriam-Webster Dictionary. Retrieved 29 March 2019. Typically, the first infected human transmits the infectious agent to at least one other human, who, in turn, infects others.
  • – In the , the zygomatic bone (cheekbone or malar bone) is a paired which articulates with the , the , the and the . It is situated at the upper and lateral part of the face and forms the prominence of the , part of the lateral wall and floor of the orbit, and parts of the and the infratemporal fossa. It presents a malar and a temporal surface; four processes (the frontosphenoidal, orbital, maxillary, and temporal), and four borders.
  • Zonular dialysis – Deficient support of the lenticular capsule of the eye by the Zonules of Zinn.


See also
  • List of medical roots, suffixes and prefixes
  • List of bones of the human skeleton
  • List of nerves of the human body
  • List of skeletal muscles of the human body
  • Anatomical terms of location
  • Anatomical terminology
  • List of diseases
  • Medical College Admission Test


Works cited

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