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Calcium is a ; it has symbol Ca and 20. As an alkaline earth metal, calcium is a reactive metal that forms a dark oxide-nitride layer when exposed to air. Its physical and chemical properties are most similar to its heavier homologues and . It is the fifth most abundant element in Earth's crust, and the third most abundant metal, after and . The most common calcium compound on Earth is calcium carbonate, found in and the fossils of early sea life; , , , and are also sources of calcium. The name comes from calx "lime", which was obtained from heating limestone.

Some calcium compounds were known to the ancients, though their chemistry was unknown until the seventeenth century. Pure calcium was isolated in 1808 via of its oxide by , who named the element. Calcium compounds are widely used in many industries: in foods and pharmaceuticals for calcium supplementation, in the paper industry as bleaches, as components in cement and electrical insulators, and in the manufacture of soaps. On the other hand, the metal in pure form has few applications due to its high reactivity; still, in small quantities it is often used as an alloying component in steelmaking, and sometimes, as a calcium–lead alloy, in making automotive batteries.

Calcium is the most abundant metal and the fifth-most abundant element in the human body. As , calcium ions (Ca2+) play a vital role in the and processes of organisms and cells: in signal transduction pathways where they act as a ; in release from ; in contraction of all types; as cofactors in many ; and in . Calcium ions outside cells are important for maintaining the potential difference across excitable , synthesis, and bone formation.


Characteristics

Classification
Calcium is a very ductile silvery metal (sometimes described as pale yellow) whose properties are very similar to the heavier elements in its group, , , and . A calcium atom has 20 electrons, with electron configuration Ar4s. Like the other elements in group 2 of the periodic table, calcium has two in the outermost s-orbital, which are very easily lost in chemical reactions to form a dipositive ion with the stable electron configuration of a , in this case .

Hence, calcium is almost always in its compounds, which are usually . Hypothetical univalent salts of calcium would be stable with respect to their elements, but not to disproportionation to the divalent salts and calcium metal, because the enthalpy of formation of MX is much higher than those of the hypothetical MX. This occurs because of the much greater afforded by the more highly charged Ca cation compared to the hypothetical Ca cation.

Calcium, strontium, barium, and radium are always considered to be alkaline earth metals; the lighter and , also in group 2 of the periodic table, are often included as well. Nevertheless, beryllium and magnesium differ significantly from the other members of the group in their physical and chemical behavior: they behave more like and respectively and have some of the weaker metallic character of the post-transition metals, which is why the traditional definition of the term "alkaline earth metal" excludes them.

(1977). 9780582442788, Longman. .


Physical properties
Calcium metal melts at 842 °C and boils at 1494 °C; these values are higher than those for magnesium and strontium, the neighbouring group 2 metals. It crystallises in the face-centered cubic arrangement like strontium and barium; above , it changes to body-centered cubic. Its density of 1.526 g/cm (at 20 °C) is the lowest in its group.

Calcium is harder than but can be cut with a knife with effort. While calcium is a poorer conductor of electricity than or by volume, it is a better conductor by mass than both due to its very low density. While calcium is infeasible as a conductor for most terrestrial applications as it reacts quickly with atmospheric oxygen, its use as such in space has been considered.


Chemical properties
The chemistry of calcium is that of a typical heavy alkaline earth metal. For example, calcium spontaneously reacts with water more quickly than magnesium but less quickly than strontium to produce calcium hydroxide and hydrogen gas. It also reacts with the and in air to form a mixture of and .C. R. Hammond The elements (pp. 4–35) in When finely divided, it spontaneously burns in air to produce the nitride. Bulk calcium is less reactive: it quickly forms a hydration coating in moist air, but below 30% relative humidity it may be stored indefinitely at room temperature.

Besides the simple oxide CaO, , CaO, can be made by direct oxidation of calcium metal under a high pressure of oxygen, and there is some evidence for a yellow Ca(O).Calcium hydroxide, Ca(OH), is a strong base, though not as strong as the hydroxides of strontium, barium or the alkali metals. All four dihalides of calcium are known. Calcium carbonate (CaCO) and (CaSO) are particularly abundant minerals. Like strontium and barium, as well as the alkali metals and the divalent and , calcium metal dissolves directly in liquid to give a dark blue solution.

Due to the large size of the calcium ion (Ca), high coordination numbers are common, up to 24 in some intermetallic compounds such as CaZn. Calcium is readily complexed by oxygen such as EDTA and , which are useful in analytic chemistry and removing calcium ions from . In the absence of , smaller group 2 cations tend to form stronger complexes, but when large are involved the trend is reversed.


Organocalcium compounds
In contrast to organomagnesium compounds, organocalcium compounds are not similarly useful, with one major exception, , CaC2. This material, which has historic significance, is prepared by heating calcium oxide with carbon. According to X-ray crystallography, calcium carbide can be described as Ca2+ derivative of acetylide, C22-, although it is not a salt. Several million tons of calcium carbide are produced annually. Hydrolysis gives , which is used in welding and a chemical precursor. Reaction with nitrogen gas converts calcium carbide to calcium cyanamide.
(2025). 9783527306732

A dominant theme in molecular organocalcium chemistry is the large radius of calcium, which often leads to high coordination numbers. For example, dimethylcalcium appears to be a 3-dimensional polymer, whereas dimethylmagnesium is a linear polymer with tetrahedral Mg centers. are often required to disfavor polymeric species. For example, calcium di, has a polymeric structure and thus is nonvolatile and insoluble in solvents. Replacing the ligand with the bulkier (pentamethylcyclopentadienyl) gives a soluble complex that sublimes and forms well-defined adducts with ethers. Organocalcium compounds tend to be more similar to organoytterbium compounds due to the similar of Yb (102 pm) and Ca (100 pm).

Organocalcium compounds have been well investigated. Some such complexes exhibit catalytic properties, although none have been commercialized.


Isotopes
Natural calcium is a mixture of five stable —Ca, Ca, Ca, Ca, and Ca—and Ca, whose half-life of 4.3 × 10 years is so long that it can be considered stable all practical purposes stable. Calcium is the first (lightest) element to have six naturally occurring isotopes.

By far the most common isotope is Ca, which makes up 96.941% of natural calcium. It is produced in the silicon-burning process from fusion of and is the heaviest stable nuclide with equal proton and neutron numbers; its occurrence is also supplemented slowly by the decay of primordial K. Adding another alpha particle leads to unstable Ti, which decays via two successive to stable Ca; this makes up 2.806% of natural calcium and is the second-most common isotope.

The other four natural isotopes, Ca, are significantly rarer, each comprising less than 1% of natural calcium. The four lighter isotopes are mainly products of and silicon-burning, leaving the two heavier ones to be produced via . Ca is mostly produced in a "hot" , as its formation requires a rather high neutron flux to allow short-lived Ca to capture a neutron. Ca is produced by electron capture in the in type Ia supernovae, where high neutron excess and low enough entropy ensures its survival.

(2025). 9780521530835, Cambridge University Press.

Ca and Ca are the first "classically stable" nuclides with a 6-neutron or 8-neutron excess respectively. Though extremely neutron-rich for such a light element, Ca is very stable because it is a nucleus, with 20 protons and 28 neutrons arranged in closed shells. Its to is very hindered by the gross mismatch of : Ca has zero nuclear spin, being even–even, while Sc has spin 6+, so the decay is forbidden by conservation of . While two excited states of Sc are available for decay as well, they are also forbidden due to their high spins. As a result, when Ca does decay, it does so by double beta decay to instead, being the lightest nuclide known to undergo double beta decay.

Ca can also theoretically double-beta-decay to Ti, but this has never been observed. The most common isotope Ca is also doubly magic and could undergo double electron capture to , but this has likewise never been observed. Calcium is the only element with two primordial doubly magic isotopes. The experimental lower limits for the half-lives of Ca and Ca are 5.9 × 10 years and 2.8 × 10 years respectively.

Excluding Ca, the longest lived of calcium is Ca. It decays by electron capture to stable with a half-life of about 10 years. Its existence in the early Solar System as an extinct radionuclide has been inferred from excesses of K. Traces of Ca also still exist today, as it is a cosmogenic nuclide, continuously produced through neutron activation of natural Ca.

Many other calcium radioisotopes are known, ranging from Ca to Ca. They are all much shorter-lived than Ca; the most stable are Ca (half-life 163 days) and Ca (half-life 4.54 days). Isotopes lighter than Ca usually undergo beta plus decay to isotopes of potassium, and those heavier than Ca usually undergo beta minus decay to ; though near the nuclear drip lines, and begin to be significant decay modes as well.

Like other elements, a variety of processes alter the relative abundance of calcium isotopes. The best studied of these processes is the mass-dependent fractionation of calcium isotopes that accompanies the precipitation of calcium minerals such as , and from solution. Lighter isotopes are preferentially incorporated into these minerals, leaving the surrounding solution enriched in heavier isotopes at a magnitude of roughly 0.025% per atomic mass unit (amu) at room temperature. Mass-dependent differences in calcium isotope composition are conventionally expressed by the ratio of two isotopes (usually Ca/Ca) in a sample compared to the same ratio in a standard reference material. Ca/Ca varies by about 1–2‰ among organisms on Earth.


History
Calcium compounds were known for millennia, though their chemical makeup was not understood until the 17th century. Lime as a building material and as was used as far back as around 7000 BC. The first dated dates back to 2500 BC and was found in , .
(2025). 9780747805960, Bloomsbury USA.
(2025). 9783527612017, Wiley. .

About the same time, dehydrated (CaSO·2HO) was being used in the Great Pyramid of Giza. This material would later be used for the plaster in the tomb of . The instead used lime mortars made by heating (CaCO). The name "calcium" itself derives from the Latin word calx "lime".

noted that the lime that resulted was lighter than the original limestone, attributing this to the boiling of the water. In 1755, proved that this was due to the loss of , which as a gas had not been recognised by the ancient Romans.

In 1789, Antoine Lavoisier suspected that lime might be an oxide of an element. In his table of the elements, Lavoisier listed five "salifiable earths" (i.e., ores that could be made to react with acids to produce salts ( salis = salt, in Latin): chaux (calcium oxide), magnésie (magnesia, magnesium oxide), baryte (barium sulfate), alumine (alumina, aluminium oxide), and silice (silica, silicon dioxide)). About these "elements", Lavoisier reasoned:

Calcium, along with its congeners magnesium, strontium, and barium, was first isolated by in 1808. Following the work of Jöns Jakob Berzelius and Magnus Martin of Pontin on , Davy isolated calcium and magnesium by putting a mixture of the respective metal oxides with mercury(II) oxide on a plate which was used as the anode, the cathode being a platinum wire partially submerged into mercury. Electrolysis then gave calcium–mercury and magnesium–mercury amalgams, and distilling off the mercury gave the metal. However, pure calcium cannot be prepared in bulk by this method and a workable commercial process for its production was not found until over a century later.

(1968). 9780766138728, Journal of Chemical Education.


Occurrence and production
At 3%, calcium is the fifth most abundant element in the Earth's crust, and the third most abundant metal behind and . It is also the fourth most abundant element in the . calcium carbonate deposits pervade the Earth's surface as fossilised remains of past marine life; they occur in two forms, the (more common) and the (forming in more temperate seas). Minerals of the first type include , dolomite, , , and ; aragonite beds make up the , the , and the basins. , , and are mostly made up of calcium carbonate. Among the other important minerals of calcium are (CaSO·2HO), (CaSO), (CaF), and (Ca(PO)X, X = OH, Cl, or F)

The major producers of calcium are (about 10000 to 12000 per year), (about 6000 to 8000 tonnes per year), and the (about 2000 to 4000 tonnes per year). and are among the minor producers. In 2005, about 24000 tonnes of calcium were produced; about half of the world's extracted calcium is used by the United States, with about 80% of the output used each year.

In Russia and China, Davy's method of electrolysis is still used, but is instead applied to molten . Since calcium is less reactive than strontium or barium, the oxide–nitride coating that results in air is stable and machining and other standard metallurgical techniques are suitable for calcium.

In the U.S. and Canada, calcium is instead produced by reducing lime with aluminium at high temperatures. In this process, powdered high-calcium lime and powdered aluminum are mixed and compacted into for a high degree of contact, which are then placed in a sealed which has been and heated to ~1200°C. The briquettes release calcium vapor into the vacuum for about 8 hours, which then condenses in the cooled ends of the retorts to form 24-34 kg pieces of calcium metal, as well as some residue of calcium aluminate. High-purity calcium can be obtained by low-purity calcium at high temperatures.


Geochemical cycling
provides a link between , , and the . In the simplest terms, mountain-building exposes calcium-bearing rocks such as and to chemical weathering and releases Ca into surface water. These ions are transported to the ocean where they react with dissolved CO to form (CaCO), which in turn settles to the sea floor where it is incorporated into new rocks. Dissolved CO, along with and ions, are termed "dissolved inorganic carbon" (DIC).

The actual reaction is more complicated and involves the bicarbonate ion (HCO) that forms when CO reacts with water at seawater pH:

At seawater pH, most of the dissolved CO is immediately converted back into . The reaction results in a net transport of one molecule of CO from the ocean/atmosphere into the . The result is that each Ca ion released by chemical weathering ultimately removes one CO molecule from the surficial system (atmosphere, ocean, soil and living organisms), storing it in carbonate rocks where it is likely to stay for hundreds of millions of years. The weathering of calcium from rocks thus scrubs CO from the ocean and air, exerting a strong long-term effect on climate.


Applications
The largest use of metallic calcium is in , due to its strong chemical affinity for oxygen and . Its oxides and sulfides, once formed, give liquid lime and sulfide inclusions in steel which float out; on treatment, these inclusions disperse throughout the steel and become small and spherical, improving castability, cleanliness and general mechanical properties. Calcium is also used in maintenance-free automotive batteries, in which the use of 0.1% calcium– alloys instead of the usual –lead alloys leads to lower water loss and lower self-discharging.

Due to the risk of expansion and cracking, is sometimes also incorporated into these alloys. These lead–calcium alloys are also used in casting, replacing lead–antimony alloys. Calcium is also used to strengthen aluminium alloys used for bearings, for the control of graphitic in , and to remove impurities from lead. Calcium metal is found in some drain cleaners, where it functions to generate heat and calcium hydroxide that the fats and liquefies the proteins (for example, those in hair) that block drains.

Besides metallurgy, the reactivity of calcium is exploited to remove from high-purity gas and as a for oxygen and nitrogen. It is also used as a reducing agent in the production of , , , and . It can also be used to store hydrogen gas, as it reacts with hydrogen to form solid , from which the hydrogen can easily be re-extracted.

Calcium isotope fractionation during mineral formation has led to several applications of calcium isotopes. In particular, the 1997 observation by Skulan and DePaolo that calcium minerals are isotopically lighter than the solutions from which the minerals precipitate is the basis of analogous applications in medicine and in paleoceanography. In animals with skeletons mineralised with calcium, the calcium isotopic composition of soft tissues reflects the relative rate of formation and dissolution of skeletal mineral.

In humans, changes in the calcium isotopic composition of urine have been shown to be related to changes in bone mineral balance. When the rate of bone formation exceeds the rate of bone resorption, the Ca/Ca ratio in soft tissue rises and vice versa. Because of this relationship, calcium isotopic measurements of urine or blood may be useful in the early detection of metabolic bone diseases like .

A similar system exists in seawater, where Ca/Ca tends to rise when the rate of removal of Ca by mineral precipitation exceeds the input of new calcium into the ocean. In 1997, Skulan and DePaolo presented the first evidence of change in seawater Ca/Ca over geologic time, along with a theoretical explanation of these changes. More recent papers have confirmed this observation, demonstrating that seawater Ca concentration is not constant, and that the ocean is never in a "steady state" with respect to calcium input and output. This has important climatological implications, as the marine calcium cycle is closely tied to the .

Many calcium compounds are used in food, as pharmaceuticals, and in medicine, among others. For example, calcium and phosphorus are supplemented in foods through the addition of , calcium diphosphate, and tricalcium phosphate. The last is also used as a polishing agent in and in . Calcium lactobionate is a white powder that is used as a suspending agent for pharmaceuticals. In baking, calcium phosphate is used as a . is used as a bleach in papermaking and as a disinfectant, is used as a reinforcing agent in rubber, and is a component of and is used to make metallic soaps and synthetic resins.

Calcium is on the World Health Organization's List of Essential Medicines.


Food sources
Foods rich in calcium include such as , , and , as well as sardines, salmon, products, , and fortified .

Because of concerns for long-term adverse side effects, including calcification of arteries and , both the U.S. Institute of Medicine (IOM) and the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) set tolerable upper intake levels (ULs) for combined dietary and supplemental calcium. From the IOM, people of ages 9–18 years are not to exceed 3 g/day combined intake; for ages 19–50, not to exceed 2.5 g/day; for ages 51 and older, not to exceed 2 g/day.

(2025). 9780309163941, National Academies Press. .
EFSA set the UL for all adults at 2.5 g/day, but decided the information for children and adolescents was not sufficient to determine ULs.


Biological and pathological role
+ Age-adjusted daily calcium recommendations (from U.S. Institute of Medicine RDAs)
(2025). 9780309163941, National Academies Press. .
1–3 years700
4–8 years1000
9–18 years1300
19–50 years1000
>51 years1000
Pregnancy1000
Lactation1000

[[File:Calcium_intake_world_map.svg|thumb|upright=1.4|Global dietary calcium intake among adults (mg/day).

]]


Function
Calcium is an essential element needed in large quantities. The Ca2+ ion acts as an and is vital to the health of the muscular, circulatory, and digestive systems; is indispensable to the building of bone in the form of hydroxyapatite; and supports synthesis and function of blood cells. For example, it regulates the contraction of muscles, nerve conduction, and the clotting of blood. As a result, intra- and extracellular calcium levels are tightly regulated by the body. Calcium can play this role because the Ca2+ ion forms stable coordination complexes with many organic compounds, especially ; it also forms compounds with a wide range of solubilities, enabling the formation of the . Sosa Torres, Martha; Kroneck, Peter M.H; "Introduction: From Rocks to Living Cells" pp. 1–32 in "Metals, Microbes and Minerals: The Biogeochemical Side of Life" (2021) pp. xiv + 341. Walter de Gruyter, Berlin. Editors Kroneck, Peter M.H. and Sosa Torres, Martha.


Binding
Calcium ions may be complexed by proteins through binding the of or residues; through interacting with , , or residues; or by being by γ-carboxylated amino acid residues. , a digestive enzyme, uses the first method; , a bone matrix protein, uses the third.

Some other bone matrix proteins such as and bone sialoprotein use both the first and the second. Direct activation of enzymes by binding calcium is common; some other enzymes are activated by noncovalent association with direct calcium-binding enzymes. Calcium also binds to the layer of the , anchoring proteins associated with the cell surface.


Solubility
As an example of the wide range of solubility of calcium compounds, monocalcium phosphate is very soluble in water, 85% of extracellular calcium is as dicalcium phosphate with a solubility of 2.00 mM, and the of bones in an organic matrix is tricalcium phosphate with a solubility of 1000 μM.


Nutrition
Calcium is a common constituent of dietary supplements, but the composition of calcium complexes in supplements may affect its which varies by solubility of the salt involved: , , and are highly bioavailable, while the is less. Other calcium preparations include calcium carbonate, calcium citrate malate, and calcium gluconate. The intestine absorbs about one-third of calcium eaten as the , and plasma calcium level is then regulated by the .


Hormonal regulation of bone formation and serum levels
Parathyroid hormone and promote the formation of bone by allowing and enhancing the deposition of calcium ions there, allowing rapid bone turnover without affecting bone mass or mineral content. When plasma calcium levels fall, cell surface receptors are activated and the secretion of parathyroid hormone occurs; it then proceeds to stimulate the entry of calcium into the plasma pool by taking it from targeted kidney, gut, and bone cells, with the bone-forming action of parathyroid hormone being antagonised by , whose secretion increases with increasing plasma calcium levels.


Abnormal serum levels
Excess intake of calcium may cause . However, because calcium is absorbed rather inefficiently by the intestines, high serum calcium is more likely caused by excessive secretion of parathyroid hormone (PTH) or possibly by excessive intake of vitamin D, both of which facilitate calcium absorption. All these conditions result in excess calcium salts being deposited in the heart, blood vessels, or kidneys. Symptoms include anorexia, nausea, vomiting, memory loss, confusion, muscle weakness, increased urination, dehydration, and metabolic bone disease.

Chronic hypercalcaemia typically leads to of soft tissue and its serious consequences: for example, calcification can cause loss of elasticity of and disruption of laminar blood flow—and thence to plaque rupture and . Conversely, inadequate calcium or vitamin D intakes may result in , often caused also by inadequate secretion of parathyroid hormone or defective PTH receptors in cells. Symptoms include neuromuscular excitability, which potentially causes and disruption of conductivity in cardiac tissue.


Bone disease
As calcium is required for bone development, many bone diseases can be traced to the organic matrix or the in molecular structure or organization of bone. is a reduction in mineral content of bone per unit volume, and can be treated by supplementation of calcium, vitamin D, and . Inadequate amounts of calcium, vitamin D, or phosphates can lead to softening of bones, called .


Safety

Metallic calcium
Because calcium reacts exothermically with water and acids, calcium metal coming into contact with bodily moisture results in severe corrosive irritation. When swallowed, calcium metal has the same effect on the mouth, oesophagus, and stomach, and can be fatal.Rumack BH. POISINDEX. Information System Micromedex, Inc., Englewood, CO, 2010; CCIS Volume 143. Hall AH and Rumack BH (Eds) However, long-term exposure is not known to have distinct adverse effects.


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