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China, officially the People's Republic of China ( PRC), is a country in East Asia. It is divided into 33 province-level divisions, including two special administrative regions. Beijing is the capital, while Shanghai is the most populous city by urban area. Its geography features the Zhongyuan, major rivers such as the Yangtze and Yellow River, deserts, subtropical and temperate forests, plateaus, and such as the Himalayas. It is the world's second-most populous country after India, with a population exceeding 1.4 billion (17% of the world's population). Covering , it is the third largest country by area.
Humans first arrived in China during the Paleolithic. During the 2nd millennium BCE, dynastic states emerged. In 221 BCE, China was unified under the Qin dynasty, followed by the Han dynasty, ushering in two millennia of imperial rule across periods of unity and division. The imperial era saw the expansion of the Silk Road and the invention of gunpowder, paper, printing, and the compass. After increased Western political, economic, and philosophical influence, the empire was succeeded by the Republic of China (ROC) after the 1911 Revolution. The Warlord Era and Chinese Civil War followed, interrupted by the Second Sino-Japanese War, which ended in a Chinese victory. In 1949, the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) proclaimed the PRC and the ROC retreated to Taiwan. Both sides still claim political legitimacy. CCP attempts to advance Maoism faltered through famine and political turmoil. The reform and opening-up that began in 1978 moved China towards a socialist market economy, spurring economic growth.
China is a unitary state with the CCP as its One-party state. It is one of the five permanent members of the UN Security Council and a member of many multilateral organizations. China is the world's largest manufacturer and has the second-largest economy by nominal GDP. International organizations have criticized China, alleging authoritarianism and human rights abuses. Possessing a large military, space program, and nuclear stockpile, China has been described as a superpower due to its influence in geopolitics, science and technology, manufacturing, economics, and Chinese culture.
Chinese art and culture have Sinosphere, with a literary tradition dating back millennia to the Chinese classics. China is the birthplace of Confucianism and Daoism, which form the traditional three teachings of Chinese philosophy and folk religion alongside Buddhism. Chinese cuisine is diverse and highly regional, with rice as a staple in the south and wheat in the north. It has 60 World Heritage Sites, including the Great Wall and Grand Canal. The Han Chinese, speakers of Sinitic languages, are China's dominant ethnicity, although it is home to 55 recognized minorities, including the Hui people, Mongols, Tibetans, Uyghurs, and Zhuang people.
The official name of the modern state is the "People's Republic of China" (labels=no). The shorter form of this name is labels=no, from ('central' or 'middle') and ('state'), a term first used for the Crown land of the Western Zhou dynasty. The names of ruling imperial dynasties were typically used to refer to the state and its territories. In the 1800s, labels=no was officially adopted as the name of the country by the Qing dynasty.
The Shang were overthrown by the Zhou dynasty . The Zhou ruled over a vast and loose confederation of vassal states across central China, which was gradually weakened by regional lords. Centralized authority collapsed in 771 BCE, giving way to constant regional warfare. During the Eastern Zhou, the multitude of small polities of the Spring and Autumn period evolved into seven territorial Warring States. Literary and philosophical developments of this period include the emergence of various schools of thought, such as Confucianism, Daoism, Mohism, and Legalism, alongside Chinese classics like the Confucian Analects and the Daoist Dao De Jing.
After the collapse, the Han dynasty emerged to rule China between 206 BCE and 220 CE. The Han gradually reinstated centralized control, legitimizing their rule through Confucian scholarship and political institutions which would be maintained in some form into the 20th century. Military expeditions against the Xiongnu, a confederation of nomadic Eurasian Steppe tribes, expanded Han influence into parts of Central Asia and helped to establish the Silk Road, allowing for trade connections between China and western Eurasia. Contemporaneously, merchants established maritime trade routes linking China, Southeast Asia, and India. The dynasty is the namesake of the Han Chinese, China's main ethnic group.
The Han faced widespread uprisings and the emergence of local warlords in the 100s and 200s CE. By 220, the empire was split into the Three Kingdoms. These were briefly united by the Jin dynasty in 280, which fell into civil war. Sinicization formerly-nomadic peoples who had settled in Northern China, such as the Xiongnu, rebelled and Sixteen Kingdoms. Various Han Chinese dynasties in Southern China emerged in the 300s. During these conflicts, Buddhism was introduced to China via the Silk Road.
In the 1340s, central China was devastated by disease, famine, and severe flooding along the Yellow River. Various rebellions erupted, leading to a peasant leader establishing the Ming dynasty in 1368 and declaring himself the Hongwu Emperor. The Ming later moved their capital from Nanjing to Beijing, with the Forbidden City as the imperial palace. However, the lower Yangtze remained the wealthiest region. Trade grew, and the European colonization of the Americas brought new crops and a massive influx of silver to China. The population doubled, and a growing publishing industry began producing works in vernacular Chinese, including the Four Classic Novels.
The Ming state declined, and by the 1600s, became unable to contain peasant rebellions. The Manchu people to the north declared the Qing dynasty in 1636 and conquered the Ming, killing their last claimant emperor in 1662 and conquering a Ming rump state on Taiwan in 1683. From the late 1600s to the end of the 1700s, the High Qing era saw economic growth and territorial expansion westward, including the conquest of Tibet and much of Central Asia. in Guangzhou (Canton)]]European powers fought various wars against the Qing dynasty during the 19th century. These began with the United Kingdom's First Opium War in 1839–1842, which resulted in the first of the "unequal treaties" imposed on the dynasty. These opened treaty ports, allowed Christian missionary activity, and loosened trade restrictions. China faced an economic crisis and internal unrest, and uprisings such as the 1850–1864 Taiping Rebellion resulted in the deaths of millions. Reformist factions of the Qing responded with the Self-Strengthening Movement, seeking to adopt Western weapons and technologies, but this had a limited impact for much of the empire.
The Empire of Japan's defeat of the Qing in the First Sino-Japanese War (1894–1895) resulted in the loss of Taiwan and the growth of both reformist and revolutionary political movements. An imperial push for reform in 1898 ended after an internal coup, while the anti-foreign Boxer Rebellion was defeated by a coalition of foreign powers in 1901. The late Qing dynasty again advanced reforms, but growing revolutionary and anti-Manchu sentiment culminated in the 1911 Revolution. A coalition of revolutionaries led by Sun Yat-sen overthrew the Qing and declared the Republic of China (ROC) in 1912.
Japan occupied Manchuria in 1931, and launched an invasion of the rest of China in 1937. A renewed coalition between the CCP and Kuomintang fought Japan in what became a theater of World War II, as Japanese forces committed numerous war atrocities against the civilian population and occupied most of China's major cities. After the surrender of Japan in 1945, China became a founding member of the United Nations and regained control over Manchuria and Taiwan. The civil war between the CCP and the Kuomintang resumed the following year.
Large mountain ranges in the west, including the Himalayas and Tian Shan, separate China from South Asia and Central Asia. China features both the Turpan Depression, among the deepest points on land, and the high Tibetan Plateau. The world's highest point, Mount Everest ( above sea level), lies on the border with Nepal. China has a wide variety of ore and mineral resources.
China's climate is dominated by and wet monsoons, which lead to pronounced seasonal temperature differences. In the winter, northern winds coming from high-latitude areas are cold and dry; in summer, southern winds from coastal areas at lower latitudes are warm and moist. The northwestern deserts receive as little as of rainfall annually, while much of southern China exceeds . Eastern China is well-suited for agriculture, with two or three harvests per year. The south is dominated by rice farming, while the north grows crops such as wheat and maize.
China frequently faces natural disasters. Its adjacency to both the Pacific Ring of Fire and the Alpide belt (tectonic belts) results in frequent earthquakes, the cause of the majority of China's natural disaster deaths. Severe quakes such as the 1976 Tangshan earthquake cause hundreds of thousands of deaths. Rainstorms and flooding are common hazards, with the Yellow River's perennial floods devastating the surrounding plains throughout recorded history. frequently impact southeastern China.
In the 21st century, China has suffered from environmental deterioration and pollution due to rapid development, alongside the broader effects of climate change. About 11% of its plant species and 21% of its vertebrate species are threatened or endangered due to habitat loss, pollution, and poaching. "Flagship" endangered species such as the giant panda and tiger have received additional funding and protection.
Although China has the world's highest CO emissions, it only emits 8 tons of CO per capita as of 2020, significantly lower than many developed countries. Total greenhouse gas emissions by China are the world's largest. China has prioritized reducing pollution, announcing its aims to reach its peak emissions levels before 2030, and achieve carbon neutrality by 2060. Water quality in China has been impacted by rapid development and high levels of agricultural runoff and heavy metal pollution.
China is the world's leading investor in renewable energy and its commercialization, investing (US$546 billion) in 2022 alone. Traditionally reliant on non-renewable energy sources such as coal, China's adoption of renewable energy has increased significantly in the 2010s and 2020s. In 2025, 54.4% of China's electricity came from coal, while 41.6% came from clean energy, with the remainder from other . Despite its emphasis on renewables, China remains dependent on global oil markets.
The PRC has engaged in 23 border disputes since 1949, of which six remain unsettled. It actively disputes several portions of its Himalayan border with India, including Aksai Chin in Kashmir and the Indian state of Arunachal Pradesh, which led to military skirmishes in 2020. It maintains maritime disputes with Japan over the Senkaku/Diaoyu Islands and with various countries over a group of South China Sea Islands within the "Nine-dash line", including the Spratly Islands and Paracel Islands. This has led to skirmishes with Vietnam and the Philippines.
Both the PRC and the ROC on Taiwan claim legitimacy as the government of China, leading to cross-strait tensions. Taiwan is a de jure province of the PRC, with the ROC-controlled islands of Kinmen and Matsu Islands as a part of Fujian.
The National People's Congress (NPC) holds the unified powers of the state and oversight over all state organs, with its Standing Committee elected to meet between the annual NPC meetings. NPC elections are indirect and the CCP controls nominations. The NPC elects the president, vice president, military chairman, and chief justice, and approves the president's nomination for premier (the head of government). In practice, the CCP leadership chooses candidates for these posts. The premier heads the State Council, which includes 26 ministers, such as the heads of ministries and commissions. The Chinese People's Political Consultative Conference is an advisory body that formally leads the CCP's united front system, which aims to gain support from non-CCP intellectuals, eight minor parties, and people's organizations.
China's current constitution dates to 1982, succeeding two earlier constitutions. Chinese governance is characterized by a high degree of political centralization but significant economic decentralization. Policy instruments and processes are often tested locally before being adopted more widely. Surveys have generally shown that the Chinese public has a high level of support for the government.
The Politburo usually gathers once a month, while the smaller PSC is thought to meet weekly. The current general secretary is Xi Jinping, who took office on 15 November 2012. Xi concurrently serves as president and the chair of the Central Military Commission (CMC); as such, he is referred to informally as the paramount leader of China. The National Congress also elects the Central Commission for Discipline Inspection, the party's main disciplinary and anti-corruption organ.
As the CCP is closely intertwined with the government, disputes within the party represent the main form of political contention in China. The CCP controls government appointments, with most senior officials being CCP members. The appointments of CCP cadres and the leadership of major state-owned enterprises and institutions are managed by the party's Organization Department. The Leninist principle of democratic centralism mandates that party decisions are binding on all members.
poly 238 62 219 74 211 97 181 87 158 114 126 115 126 152 115 166 83 171 61 173 53 181 42 179 42 173 16 177 3 200 17 207 14 230 3 230 39 276 59 277 73 291 98 298 113 294 126 305 165 304 200 300 231 314 246 297 232 277 265 267 281 243 315 220 336 220 338 205 329 178 305 159 270 147 279 120 271 95 254 88 247 65 Xinjiang poly 75 292 90 299 110 296 130 310 167 307 202 305 216 314 210 352 219 372 294 402 294 414 316 418 333 408 344 426 347 467 335 484 318 482 303 478 307 471 301 457 287 461 276 452 248 464 220 474 189 462 172 458 116 440 73 386 59 389 33 352 33 333 35 340 50 340 46 313 56 312 Tibet (Xizang) Autonomous Region poly 238 274 252 302 240 307 243 322 219 318 214 354 224 372 234 369 243 380 275 393 285 391 299 410 315 414 332 386 336 374 350 377 365 399 389 403 395 393 386 377 401 377 407 375 402 366 421 341 416 320 382 300 365 282 355 287 340 276 335 299 300 289 273 270 Qinghai poly 337 212 339 221 322 228 295 245 285 245 282 269 297 279 302 287 331 292 337 275 355 282 365 280 384 294 419 318 426 342 405 367 410 374 403 381 388 375 401 395 410 391 407 384 417 374 426 386 435 389 443 408 454 410 463 404 467 392 474 393 475 378 475 364 487 370 497 368 495 362 509 362 509 341 480 327 476 341 484 344 483 352 473 359 458 352 458 330 449 319 432 311 444 288 441 280 413 287 408 295 378 269 389 253 362 248 353 234 358 230 350 209 339 209 Gansu poly 335 377 333 398 342 404 351 425 349 488 357 477 372 495 388 531 410 527 407 510 420 500 427 486 435 485 435 501 447 497 450 504 468 504 457 492 465 484 452 472 459 455 473 456 481 460 490 445 504 429 482 410 454 411 439 407 436 391 421 387 418 377 412 391 402 397 392 396 392 405 377 411 368 403 348 380 Sichuan poly 347 473 333 492 339 499 335 531 314 549 312 566 337 564 335 584 345 586 334 603 348 607 356 619 369 612 371 625 379 626 379 601 390 603 397 596 405 604 413 597 430 599 457 587 457 575 433 567 438 553 430 545 437 530 422 526 421 515 448 509 448 497 436 501 431 486 411 508 412 528 388 532 373 498 365 498 364 489 359 479 350 487 Yunnan poly 451 320 460 329 461 348 475 360 476 351 481 352 481 343 475 342 478 328 487 327 492 313 477 305 484 292 478 286 470 304 470 313 Ningxia poly 354 212 360 232 354 236 364 249 390 249 383 266 408 293 410 284 441 280 446 288 432 308 449 317 466 313 469 293 481 284 485 289 482 303 510 316 532 286 560 282 564 268 591 259 586 243 599 230 601 240 628 229 628 221 641 217 652 239 664 239 664 224 667 220 675 231 720 199 707 176 701 182 689 151 702 153 702 133 692 122 718 92 728 47 717 35 712 43 692 45 682 26 676 28 666 21 671 13 667 7 653 23 657 22 663 33 647 74 628 87 617 82 603 114 606 120 627 121 632 116 643 115 665 137 646 139 614 151 616 161 575 181 561 176 551 187 559 200 524 226 493 226 457 241 419 228 414 220 Inner Mongolia poly 534 286 513 317 495 316 490 331 511 341 508 362 496 363 498 368 485 370 478 365 474 374 479 378 475 394 465 395 464 409 505 420 522 430 523 414 531 412 522 401 547 400 533 372 540 355 535 327 543 318 537 307 548 284 Shaanxi poly 506 422 503 428 506 429 495 449 490 448 484 462 475 462 459 454 461 463 452 469 467 483 467 488 474 490 480 484 486 485 486 478 493 479 493 483 502 481 513 497 517 481 506 467 507 454 520 452 532 443 533 437 Chongqing poly 459 489 469 504 453 505 450 512 425 513 426 526 435 524 438 528 431 542 440 552 434 562 446 557 457 562 476 553 480 547 487 553 496 553 520 541 520 520 511 521 520 508 517 496 513 499 500 484 490 481 476 492 Guizhou poly 437 565 459 573 462 586 450 592 472 599 470 614 500 626 502 621 525 626 555 601 554 588 566 574 563 564 557 565 549 556 555 543 548 532 536 540 491 556 480 548 477 555 461 565 447 557 Guangxi poly 549 285 538 307 543 317 539 358 534 374 585 357 587 343 583 337 592 316 583 305 588 290 596 286 595 274 587 271 596 266 592 260 566 267 561 280 Shanxi poly 588 341 590 356 538 374 548 396 557 413 590 415 594 428 616 432 626 424 626 413 620 414 614 411 610 403 616 393 620 391 619 383 625 384 628 388 636 384 629 372 617 372 607 365 616 351 613 345 Henan poly 522 401 534 412 524 415 525 431 533 435 532 447 520 453 505 454 506 464 517 476 530 467 541 467 541 462 574 471 578 465 582 472 590 463 594 468 596 477 623 463 632 463 626 446 629 440 621 439 617 431 610 433 594 427 591 416 567 417 553 411 548 401 Hubei poly 520 475 523 511 512 519 522 519 524 539 541 534 553 535 557 543 548 557 564 563 568 556 580 556 588 550 599 551 597 515 591 513 593 502 602 492 601 486 592 477 590 467 582 473 570 471 540 462 541 468 537 470 528 469 Hunan poly 570 557 565 581 556 589 555 599 530 621 523 638 531 652 540 650 535 639 539 630 580 621 595 608 592 601 600 604 629 600 648 595 657 581 650 563 633 558 632 564 626 561 607 566 613 555 611 550 600 552 587 549 583 559 Guangdong poly 518 658 466 657 462 686 505 685 524 694 527 687 531 687 540 682 548 664 545 656 Hainan poly 598 230 590 241 587 251 596 262 589 270 594 272 596 286 588 289 587 295 583 303 586 305 592 315 584 336 608 345 615 344 612 337 635 310 643 309 648 303 643 294 630 291 633 286 631 277 627 279 613 280 609 271 616 265 614 260 625 249 638 254 638 262 644 266 647 276 654 284 667 279 666 272 674 264 670 255 658 250 665 240 650 241 647 233 650 232 641 218 630 221 628 230 616 234 602 242 Hebei poly 668 8 673 14 667 22 676 28 676 25 684 28 690 45 712 41 716 35 730 47 722 66 725 82 718 98 694 122 707 141 716 141 722 154 741 152 750 157 760 155 762 164 768 164 777 173 779 163 793 180 793 176 809 168 821 175 815 149 824 140 840 140 845 94 849 84 847 82 845 73 815 94 803 96 797 89 793 76 778 69 754 68 723 11 707 6 692 1 Heilongjiang poly 706 142 702 152 689 151 695 158 700 181 711 174 721 194 730 197 733 202 737 198 748 216 747 220 756 237 769 218 789 221 785 209 796 207 806 198 806 188 813 190 823 185 821 175 813 173 809 169 796 174 793 181 780 164 777 172 772 173 768 165 763 164 761 156 754 155 748 157 741 152 725 155 715 141 Jilin poly 721 193 721 201 680 224 676 231 665 221 666 237 659 251 669 255 674 264 683 260 691 245 708 250 696 271 703 278 696 283 697 286 708 280 719 267 737 260 756 239 748 222 747 214 738 197 733 203 Liaoning poly 626 248 614 259 618 264 610 271 612 279 625 281 631 276 638 264 639 254 631 253 Beijing poly 639 264 631 277 633 285 630 291 643 295 649 282 646 280 647 277 643 276 642 267 643 267 Tianjin poly 664 303 645 304 633 311 612 337 616 353 605 365 613 367 615 371 629 374 631 367 640 366 646 373 656 368 660 373 675 359 695 337 696 327 719 320 721 310 704 311 690 306 678 320 665 318 Shandong poly 639 366 630 372 640 376 650 382 659 386 659 397 664 405 670 404 673 399 679 408 669 408 670 413 666 418 675 426 673 432 693 432 703 438 710 431 714 423 724 419 719 411 706 403 693 372 676 366 674 360 667 367 664 372 657 369 647 373 Jiangsu poly 628 373 636 384 628 389 620 384 620 392 609 403 616 411 625 413 627 425 619 434 630 440 627 446 634 463 645 459 643 467 650 459 668 467 678 456 676 451 685 449 683 445 688 434 675 433 676 427 666 421 669 413 669 410 677 408 678 404 673 400 671 404 665 405 662 398 658 397 659 387 653 386 Anhui poly 713 422 709 432 717 438 725 434 721 426 Shanghai poly 690 432 684 449 678 449 678 457 666 472 675 489 679 490 683 504 689 504 693 500 697 504 710 507 715 493 720 493 727 483 734 456 717 446 708 450 705 446 711 444 715 439 708 433 702 437 Zhejiang poly 595 480 602 493 593 512 597 513 601 552 611 549 614 555 606 565 627 561 632 566 637 540 643 535 642 531 645 527 643 521 653 512 651 504 660 498 674 490 666 475 668 468 655 465 650 460 642 467 645 459 640 457 630 465 623 463 621 466 Jiangxi poly 679 490 673 492 658 498 651 504 654 512 643 519 646 526 642 534 633 558 650 562 658 582 679 563 702 541 709 507 698 505 694 500 688 505 681 504 Fujian poly 600 605 602 615 669 616 668 604 Hong Kong poly 595 609 589 616 589 630 623 630 623 619 602 618 Macau poly 738 542 728 547 711 574 710 584 714 594 721 600 723 608 727 596 733 589 742 559 742 553 744 548 Taiwan Province
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| + First level administrative divisions of China by type ! scope="col" | Type ! scope="col" | List |
| Taiwan , governed by the Taiwan | ||
China is widely described as a superpower due to its influence in geopolitics, technology, manufacturing, economics and culture. Although China moderated its relations with the West during the reform era, its rise in power has brought political tensions with many of its neighbors and with the United States, the current dominant superpower. Although China is among the United States' largest trade partners, their relationship is tempered by a trade war and disagreements over the political status of Taiwan.
China's foreign policy is based on the Five Principles of Peaceful Coexistence, which include a principle of non-intervention in other countries' domestic affairs. Per its policy of non-alignment, China has no except for its 1961 treaty with North Korea, although it maintains close relationships with neighbors such as Pakistan and Russia. China has invested heavily in developing countries across Asia, Latin America, and Africa, creating a system of and loans through the Belt and Road Initiative.
The PLA is considered one of the world's most powerful militaries and has rapidly modernized in the 21st century. A 2026 study estimates that its 2025 expenditure was 2.27 trillion yuan (US$336 billion), 12% of global military spending and 1.7% of China's GDP. The PLA, the People's Armed Police and the Militia are commanded by the Central Military Commission. Due to the chairman responsibility system, the chairman of the CMC, currently Xi Jinping, is the commander-in-chief of the PLA.
China's law enforcement system is managed by the Ministry of Public Security, which oversees public security bureaus (PSBs) in each province, themselves divided into local levels. Local sub-bureaus and stations handle most routine policing. The People's Armed Police, a paramilitary force, is administered by the CMC and supports emergency response measures. The social credit system maintains a network of Blacklisting to record businesses and individuals who violate regulations, court orders, or financial agreements. China has periodically mobilized anti-crime campaigns, using heavy penalties as a form of deterrence. Violent crimes are the highest priority for enforcement, although they occur at relatively low rates. Capital punishment has declined since the Mao era, but remains common; China has the most executions per year of any country.
In Xinjiang, China has restricted the civil rights of the Uyghurs, who face widespread discrimination, police crackdowns, and restrictions on Islamic religious practice and the use of the Uyghur language. China interred over a million Uyghurs in a network of internment camps in the late 2010s. These facilities have evolved into a system of prisons and forced labor. Several UN OHCHR experts have equated it to "enslavement as a crime against humanity". China has restricted the civil and political rights of Hong Kong residents. Since the 2019–2020 protests, China has cracked down on the pro-democracy movement in the SAR and removed much of its political autonomy. China has cracked down on political expression in Tibet and strengthened surveillance since the late 2000s, restricting residents from obtaining passports and most foreigners from entering the region.
China does not recognize same-sex marriage or same-sex adoption, and regularly censors LGBTQ people-related media. Many Chinese hospitals provide sexual conversion therapy, viewing homosexuality as a mental disorder. LGBTQ rights advocates are surveilled and criminalized.
The private sector constitutes the largest portion of the Chinese economy, with about 30–40% under state ownership. State-owned companies make less than 10% of exports, but are predominant in industries such as transportation, utilities, and financial services. Since the 1990s, China has decentralized its economic planning, with about 85% of government spending delegated to the provincial or local level, and local governments adapting national economic plans to suit local interests.
China's main stock exchanges are Shanghai and Shenzhen. Its stock market is the second largest, behind the US. The Chinese banking system makes up a much larger share of the economy than most other countries. Four state-owned banks hold about 40% of the sector's assets as of 2022. China has struggled to establish its currency, the renminbi (in units of yuan), as an international reserve currency; as of 2025, it is the seventh largest currency in foreign exchange reserves.
About a third of China's workforce consists of domestic migrant workers, the floating population. The labels=no system restricts citizens' access to services and utilities outside of their registered home, leading to pronounced inequalities between urban and rural workers. Especially in larger cities, only those with local labels=no may be able to buy property, though hukou restrictions have loosened significantly in the 21st century.
According to 2026 state data, China's urban unemployment rate was 5.0%. China has a high debt-to-GDP ratio (almost 300% in 2020), with household debt at about 65% of the GDP. China has faced a property sector crisis since 2020. By the late 2010s, Chinese real estate assets far exceed the combined total of stocks, bonds, and deposits.
Since launching its first satellite in 1970, China has maintained an active space program. After the United States and the Soviet Union, China became the third to independently put astronauts into orbit, with a 2003 mission. The Chinese Lunar Exploration Program has sent multiple robotic landers to the Moon, the Planetary Exploration of China program has sent a lander and rover to Mars, and the Tiangong space station has hosted crewed operations in Low Earth orbit since 2021.
Chinese cities are disparate in their level of infrastructure. Tier-one cities such as Beijing and Shanghai have elaborate and advanced infrastructure networks, while smaller cities and rural areas often have outdated and underfunded transit and public utilities. Water resources in China are unevenly distributed. With industrialization and rapid development, the drier north has faced endemic water shortages. To combat this, the South–North Water Transfer Project pumps water from the Yangtze basin to supply northern cities. The State Grid Corporation of China, the world's largest Public utility, manages the electrical grid for most of the country, with the China Southern Power Grid as the electric utility in some southern provinces. Power generation is primarily managed by five state-owned corporations, alongside local and provincial utilities. Most of China's renewable energy comes from hydropower. The Three Gorges Dam is the world's largest power station by capacity.
China has the largest number of internet users and websites of any country. According to state data, it has 1.125 billion internet users as of 2025, about 80% of its population. It has an extensive system of internet censorship. The Great Firewall, a system of internet controls and regulations, blocks access to many foreign websites. Users can circumvent it through virtual private networks, but these face occasional crackdowns. The Cyberspace Administration of China is the national internet regulator and censor. Most telecommunications are operated by state-owned companies.
The National Bureau of Statistics estimated that the population fell 850,000 from 2021 to 2022, the first decline since 1961. In 2025, China recorded 5.6 births per 1000 people, the lowest recorded birthrate since at least 1949. China's population is concentrated in the eastern half of the country; although 64% of China's territory is west of the Heihe–Tengchong Line, as of 2020 only 6.5% of its population lives west of the line.
Spurred by fears of overpopulation, China maintained a one-child policy from 1979 to 2015, restricting most families to a single child. The policy was most strictly enforced in urban areas, while families from ethnic minorities and rural communities were often exempt from one-child limits. A two-child policy was introduced in 2015, and in July 2021, family size limits as well as penalties for exceeding them were removed. The policy resulted in a skewed sex ratio, as many families preferred to have sons, who were able to continue the patrilineal line and were perceived as better able to support the family. Through a combination of infanticide, sex-selective abortion, and unreported female births, there were 120 boys born for every 100 girls by the late 1990s.
China maintains a restrictive immigration policy, with permanent residence granted to only around 12,000 foreigners as of 2023, while an additional 845,697 lived in mainland China as of the 2020 census. The Chinese diaspora is among the largest on earth, comprising about 40 million people, mostly descended from emigrants during the 19th and early 20th centuries. About two-thirds of this diaspora reside in Indonesia, Thai Chinese, Malaysia, and the United States.
The figures below are from the 2020 census and are only estimates of the urban populations within administrative city limits; a different ranking exists for total municipal populations. The large floating population of migrant workers make conducting censuses in urban areas difficult.
Most Han are speakers of Mandarin Chinese. Standard Chinese, largely based off the Beijing dialect, is the official language of China. Around 300 million people speak other Chinese languages (often described as labels=no—local varieties or —in Chinese sources). While also written with Chinese characters, these are not highly mutually intelligible with Mandarin or each other. Major branches of Chinese include Mandarin, Wu Chinese, Yue Chinese (Cantonese), Min Chinese, Gan Chinese, Hakka Chinese, and Xiang Chinese; the latter six are mainly spoken in Southern China. Since the 1950s, local dialects have steadily assimilated into Mandarin or one of the main regional registers.
Simplified Chinese characters, first standardized in the 1950s, are used to write Chinese throughout mainland China, while traditional Chinese characters remain in use in the SARs and Taiwan. Pinyin is the official romanization system for Chinese in the PRC.
Other language families are found throughout China. Distantly related to Chinese, Tibeto-Burman languages are found in the west and southwest. In southwestern China, many Hmong–Mien and Kra–Dai languages are spoken by minority groups. Offshoots of the Austroasiatic and Austronesian language families are also found in the south in smaller numbers. In the northwest, Turkic languages (including Uyghur language) and Mongolic languages are found, as well as two Indo-European languages (Russian language and Tajik language). Several Tungusic languages are found in northwestern and northeastern China. Since the 2010s, the Chinese government has intensified linguistic assimilation policies, generally requiring schools to use Standard Chinese.
Confucianism is a philosophical and spiritual tradition that originated in the Eastern Zhou, emphasizing the study of the Chinese classics and the relations of the individual, society, and Tian. It has sometimes been identified as a religion, following Western influences. Daoism emphasizes the labels=no ('way') as the world's origin and fundamental force, and seeks to harness it through spiritual cultivation. Initially a philosophical movement during the Eastern Zhou, the religious tradition of Daoism emerged during the 2nd century CE. Mahayana was introduced to China during the Han dynasty and spread rapidly over the following centuries. Although often dismissed by Confucian elites, Buddhism greatly influenced other Chinese religious and philosophical traditions.
Although China and CCP are legally State atheism, freedom of religion is formally guaranteed by the Chinese constitution. China officially recognizes five religions: Buddhism, Taoism, Islam, Catholicism, and Protestantism. Formal religious practice is managed by "patriotic associations" for each of the recognized faiths overseen by the CCP's United Front Work Department. However, the majority of religious activities take place outside of registered organizations. China has attempted to crack down on some forms of unregistered practice, such as Protestant house churches. Religious practices among minority groups, such as Islam among the Uyghur and Tibetan Buddhism, have come under state scrutiny and regulation over fears of separatism.
As of 2022, China had 158 million students enrolled in compulsory school, and 46.5 million enrolled in higher education. There are over 200,000 elementary and junior high schools, over 22,000 secondary schools, and over 3,000 colleges and universities. Both private and public schools exist at all levels, with 10.6% of elementary and junior high students attending private schools. China became the world's largest publisher of scientific papers in 2016. Foreign language programs are mandatory from 3rd grade. Generally focused on English, other languages are increasingly being taught, especially at the senior high level.
The National Health Commission, together with its local counterparts, oversees health policy. After the beginning of reform and opening-up in 1978, Chinese public health improved rapidly from better nutrition, although many free health services provided in the countryside disappeared. Healthcare in China became mostly privatized and experienced a significant quality increase. China is a major producer and exporter of active pharmaceutical ingredients.
According to 2025 state data, the life expectancy at birth exceeds 79 years, and the infant mortality is 4 per 1,000. Rates of stunted growth declined from 33.1% in 1990 to 4.5% in 2024. Mental health services are underfunded and unevenly distributed. The COVID-19 pandemic was first identified in Wuhan. China maintained a Zero-COVID, using lockdowns, , and contact tracing to curb its transmission, until protests in November–December 2022.
Chinese culture has historically emphasized family connections, with filial piety and the veneration of ancestors seen as vital duties under Confucian ethics. Prior to the 20th century, family relations were highly Patriarchy, and arranged marriages were commonplace. The CCP pushed for gender equality after coming to power, establishing the All-China Women's Federation to manage women's issues. However, many patriarchal gender norms remain prevalent, and women face lower employment rates and occupational gender segregation.
Prior to the adoption of the Gregorian calendar in 1912, China traditionally used a 12-month lunisolar calendar. The 60-part sexagenary cycle was often used to enumerate days as well as years, alongside the twelve-year Chinese zodiac. Major holidays and festivals in China include the Chinese New Year (or Spring Festival), the Qingming Festival, the Mid-Autumn Festival, and National Day.
Chinese paintings are traditionally made with on paper or silk. Horizontal and vertical are common formats, alongside Mural, and . Calligraphy, emerging during the 3rd and 4th centuries CE, was traditionally regarded in China as the most prestigious form of art, and remains among the most widely practiced. Western painting styles gained popularity during the early 20th century, while the Mao government promoted art as a means to embody socialist ideals. The 21st century has seen a boom in the international influence of Chinese contemporary art.
Pottery and metal crafts in China date to ancient times. Porcelain, also known as china, became a common form of ceramic during the 7th century. By the 14th century, it became popular to decorate porcelain vessels with elaborate blue and white patterns, which became the most popular form of Chinese ceramics. Jade crafts and lacquerware have been common decorative mediums since antiquity.
, multi-story religious towers far taller than other forms of traditional architecture, were introduced to China alongside Buddhism, and comprise many of China's oldest buildings. Western-style architecture was introduced during the 1800s, while domestic architects began to implement Western design principles in the 1900s. The reform era has seen a boom in contemporary skyscrapers and offices, which have largely supplanted traditional architecture.
Chinese opera emerged from labels=no, folk narrative singing traditions. Influenced by various regional traditions and labels=no, a genre popular during the Ming dynasty, Peking opera reached national popularity during the Qing dynasty, while various local and regional forms of opera emerged across the country. Maoist China promoted revolutionary opera and communist-oriented folk music.
By the Han period, Chinese dance was a frequent subject of art and poetry, as well as an element of religious rites. Dancers often performed for the imperial courts, while Chinese opera dances led to increasing numbers of dance troupes across all levels of society during the Qing. Western dances gained popularity in the early 20th century, while the CCP promoted such as labels=no.
People in China generally eat three meals a day, often with a simple breakfast and a more elaborate dinner. Chopsticks are the main eating utensil. Dishes are usually served to be shared among multiple people, rather than served in individual portions. Hot tea almost always accompanies meals across the country, in lieu of water. Alcohol such as and the distilled liquor baijiu are commonly served with meals. Chinese cuisine was traditionally divided into four great traditions: Shandong cuisine (Shandong), Huaiyang cuisine (Jiangsu), Sichuan cuisine (Sichuan), and Yue (Guangdong). Chinese Buddhists have developed a Buddhist cuisine that avoids meat, while Chinese Islamic cuisine excludes pork and alcohol.
Chinese fashions changed greatly during the 20th century, as traditional designs largely gave way to Western clothing. The labels=no became a popular form of women's dress during the early 20th century, but are today rare outside of formal occasions. After a focus on simple, practical clothing during the Mao era, the reform era saw the emergence of a Western-style fashion industry. In the 21st century, the Hanfu Movement has sought to promote a reconstructed form of traditional Chinese clothing.
The literati regarded literature as primarily Didacticism, with fiction seen as useless and potentially corruptive. However, poetry was viewed highly for its ability to convey the nature of reality. The Tang poetry was particularly prized in later dynasties. Before the early 20th century, fiction was generally written in vernacular Chinese, with formal works generally in Classical Chinese. Popular vernacular literature spread with the introduction of printing, resulting in works such as the Four Classic Novels of the Ming and Qing periods.
Modern Chinese literature has been heavily influenced by the political upheavals of the 19th and 20th centuries, seeking to explain the political climate or imagine its future. New Culture writers such as Lu Xun promoted the importance of fiction and vernacular Chinese, experimenting with new modernist forms, while writers of the Reform era sought to explain the trauma of the Mao era. Chinese online literature has become popular alongside the growth of the internet, with about half of Chinese internet users regularly consuming it.
As of 2023, China has over 2,600 radio stations, all state-owned, and over 1,900 newspapers. Cities generally have a newspaper published by the local government and another by the local CCP branch. Journalism is tightly controlled and monitored by the CCP, with content critical of the government censored. Foreign Chinese-language news outlets are blocked, while English-language outlets are occasionally available but often censored. Prominent newspapers in China include the People's Daily, Global Times, China Daily, and Reference News. The most popular social media platform is WeChat. Other major platforms include the microblogging service Weibo, the news and content aggregator Toutiao, the video-sharing platform Xigua Video, and the short-form video platform Douyin, available internationally as TikTok.
Modern sporting was introduced to China from the West during the late 19th and early 20th centuries. China first participated in the Olympic Games in 1932. Although association football draws large audiences, the men's national team has only qualified once for the FIFA World Cup; the country hosted the FIFA Women's World Cup twice and the women's team finished as runners-up once.
China began to invest heavily in elite sports during the 1990s, and in 2008 Beijing hosted the Summer Olympics. Elite sports in China are managed by the General Administration of Sport, which oversees management centers for various sports, as well as provincial sports committees and teams. The vast majority of sports funding, especially for elite sports, comes from the government. China hosted the Winter Olympics in 2022, and the Asian Games in 1990, 2010, and 2022. China is dominant among international competition in table tennis (often dubbed China's national sport), badminton, diving, and weightlifting, and is among the top global competitors in snooker.
Various card, dice, and board games gained popularity in imperial China, most notably labels=no (also known as Go) and labels=no (a relative of chess). Mahjong emerged during the 1800s, initially one of many popular Gambling. China is the world's largest video game market. Video games were introduced from Japan in the 1980s, and online video games grew to immense popularity alongside the spread of the internet.
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