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Wine is an alcoholic drink made from fermented fruit. Yeast consumes the sugar in the fruit and converts it to ethanol and carbon dioxide, releasing heat in the process. Wine is most often made from , and the term "wine" generally refers to grape wine when used without any qualification. Even so, wine can be made fruit wine, including plum, cherry, pomegranate, blueberry, Ribes, and Sambucus.
Different varieties of grapes and strains of yeasts are major factors in different styles of wine. These differences result from the complex interactions between the Biochemistry development of the grape, the reactions involved in fermentation, the grape's growing environment (terroir), and the wine production process. Many countries enact legal intended to define styles and qualities of wine. These typically restrict the geographical origin and permitted varieties of grapes, as well as other aspects of wine production.
Wine has been produced for thousands of years. The earliest evidence of wine is from the present-day Georgian wine (6000 BCE). Later, as Old World wine further developed viticulture techniques, Europe would encompass three of the largest wine-producing regions. The top five wine producing countries of 2023 were Italy, France, Spain, the United States and China.
Wine has long played an important role in religion. Red wine was associated with blood by the ancient Egyptians, and was used by both the Greek cult of Dionysus and the ancient Romans in their Bacchanalia; Judaism also incorporates it in the Kiddush, and Christianity in the Eucharist. Egyptian wine, Greek wine, Roman wine, and Israeli wine wine cultures are still connected to these ancient roots. Similarly the largest wine regions in Italy, Spanish wine, and French wine have heritages in connection to sacramental wine, likewise, viticulture traditions in the Southwestern United States started within New Spain as Catholic friars and monks first produced wines in New Mexico and California wine.
A 2003 report by archaeologists indicates a possibility that grapes were mixed with rice to produce in ancient China in the early years of the seventh millennium BCE.
Traces of wine have also been found in Xinjiang in modern-day China, dating from the second and first millennia BCE. The first modern wine industry in East Asia was Japanese wine, developed from 1874 after grapevines were brought back from Europe. (2025). 9781784724030, Octopus Publishing Group. ISBN 9781784724030
The spread of wine culture in the Mediterranean was probably due to the influence of the Phoenicians from about 1000 BCE. (2025). 9781784724030, Mitchell Beazley. ISBN 9781784724030 The wines of Byblos were exported to Egypt during the Old Kingdom and then throughout the Mediterranean. Industrialized production of wine in ancient Greece began around 600 BCE and spread across the Italian peninsula and to southern Gaul. The ancient Romans further increased the scale of wine production and trade networks, especially in Gaul around the time of the Gallic Wars, and many famous vineyards date from Roman occupation. The Romans discovered that burning sulfur candles inside empty wine vessels kept them fresh and free from a vinegar smell, due to the antioxidant effects of sulfur dioxide.
In Middle Ages, Catholic Church monks grew grapes and made wine for the Eucharist. Monastries expanded their land holdings over time and established vineyards in many of today's most successful wine regions. Bordeaux was a notable exception, being a purely commercial enterprise serving the Duchy of Aquitaine and by association Britain between the 12th and 15th centuries.
European wine grape traditions were incorporated into New World wine. Mission grapes were brought by Franciscan monks to New Mexico in 1628, beginning the New Mexico wine heritage. These grapes were also brought to California which started the California wine industry. These two regions eventually evolved into the oldest and largest producers, respectively, of wine of the United States.
The ultimate Indo-European origin of the word is the subject of some continued debate. Some scholars have noted the similarities between the words for wine in Indo-European languages (e.g. Armenian gini, Latin vinum, Ancient Greek οἶνος, Russian вино ), Kartvelian (e.g. Georgian ), and Semitic ( *wayn; Hebrew language יין ), pointing to the possibility of a common origin of the word denoting "wine" in these language families. The Georgian word goes back to Proto-Kartvelian * ɣwino-, which is either a borrowing from Proto-Indo-European or the lexeme was specifically borrowed from Proto-Armenian * ɣʷeinyo-, whence Armenian gini. An alternative hypothesis by Fähnrich supposes * ɣwino-, a native Kartvelian word derived from the verbal root * ɣun- ('to bend').See for more.
| +Types of wine from grapes ! !Long contact with grape skins !Short contact with grape skins !No contact with grape skins |
Dry (low sugar) white wine is the most common, derived from the complete fermentation of the juice, however sweet white wines such as Moscato d'Asti are also made.
There are three primary ways to produce rosé wine: Skin contact (allowing dark grape skins to stain the wort), saignée (removing juice from the must early in fermentation and continuing fermentation of the juice separately), and blending of a red and white wine (uncommon and discouraged in most wine growing regions). Rosé wines have a wide range of sweetness levels from dry Provençal rosé to sweet and blushes. Rosé wines are made from a wide variety of grapes all over the world.J. Robinson (ed) "The Oxford Companion to Wine" Third Edition pg 593 Oxford University Press 2006 O. Clarke Oz Clarke's Encyclopedia of Wine pgs 15, 225, 320, 360 Time Warner Books, London 2003
Two common methods of accomplishing this are the traditional method, used for Cava, Champagne, and more expensive sparkling wines, and the Charmat method, used for Prosecco, Asti wine, and less expensive wines. A hybrid transfer method is also used, yielding intermediate results, and simple addition of carbon dioxide is used in the cheapest of wines.
The bottles used for sparkling wine must be thick to withstand the pressure of the gas behind the cork, which can be up to .
In the context of wine production, terroir is a concept that encompasses the varieties of grapes used, elevation and shape of the vineyard, type and chemistry of soil, climate and seasonal conditions, and the local yeast cultures. The range of possible combinations of these factors can result in great differences among wines, influencing the fermentation, finishing, and aging processes as well. Many wineries use growing and production methods that preserve or accentuate the aroma and taste influences of their unique terroir. However, flavor differences are less desirable for producers of mass-market table wine or other cheaper wines, where consistency takes precedence. Such producers try to minimize differences in sources of grapes through production techniques such as micro-oxygenation, tannin filtration, cross-flow filtration, thin-film evaporation, and spinning cones.
The liquid is then transferred to a container for fermentation, which is typically made of oak, stainless steel or concrete, and either open or closed. Yeast is naturally present on grape skins, but most producers choose to use a specific strain to benefit from behaviors such as speed of fermentation, and to control the flavors produced. For red wines, winemakers may choose to encourage the extraction of tannins and flavor from the grape skins by agitating the mixture. Additives such as sugar (to increase the ultimate alcohol content) may be added if permitted by law. Some wines undergo a secondary, malolactic fermentation, in which the harsher malic acid is converted into lactic acid by bacteria. Finally the wine may be filtered to remove microbes and yeast, and sulfite may be added as a preservative.
Most wines are sold in wine bottle, traditionally sealed with corks. Most cork for this purpose comes from Alentejo, but a decline in quality in the late 20th century and an increase in demand spurred development of alternatives. An increasing number of wine producers use alternative closures such as screwcaps and synthetic "corks". (2025). 9781784724030, Mitchell Beazley. ISBN 9781784724030 Although alternative closures reduce the risk of cork taint, they have been blamed for such problems as excessive redox.
Some wines are packaged in thick plastic bags within corrugated fiberboard boxes, and are called "", or "cask wine". Tucked inside the package is a tap affixed to the bag in box, or bladder, that is later extended by the consumer for serving the contents. Box wine can stay acceptably fresh for two to three weeks after opening because the bladder collapses as wine is dispensed, limiting contact with air and, thus, slowing the rate of oxidation. In contrast, bottled wine more rapidly after opening because of the increasing ratio of air to wine as the contents are dispensed; it can degrade considerably in a few days. Canned wine is one of the fastest-growing forms of alternative wine packaging on the market.
Environmental considerations of wine packaging reveal the benefits and drawbacks of both bottled and box wines. The glass used to make bottles is a nontoxic, naturally occurring substance that is completely recyclable, but its production may cause air pollution. A New York Times editorial suggested that box wine, being lighter in package weight, has a reduced carbon footprint from its distribution; however, box-wine plastics, even though possibly recyclable, can be more labor-intensive (and therefore expensive) to process than glass bottles. Canned wine has the advantage of recyclable packaging.
Some wine is sold in stainless steel kegs and is referred to as wine on tap.
Some blended wine names are marketing terms whose use is governed by trademark law rather than by specific wine laws. For example, Meritage is generally a Bordeaux-style blend of Cabernet Sauvignon and Merlot, but may also include Cabernet Franc, Petit Verdot, and Malbec. Commercial use of the term Meritage is allowed only via licensing agreements with the Meritage Association.
The classification of Swiss wine was historically complex due to its system of federalism, but was due to be simplified and made consistent with EU rules . (2025). 9781784724030, Mitchell Beazley. ISBN 9781784724030 Similar to the EU, regulations regarding English wine denote rules for PGI and PDO products.
According to Canadian Food and Drug Regulations, wine in Canada is an alcoholic drink that is produced by the complete or partial alcoholic fermentation of fresh grapes, grape must, products derived solely from fresh grapes, or any combination of them. There are many materials added during the course of the manufacture, such as yeast, concentrated grape juice, dextrose, fructose, glucose or glucose solids, invert sugar, sugar, or aqueous solutions. Calcium sulphate in such quantity that the content of soluble sulphates in the finished wine shall not exceed 0.2 percent weight by volume calculated as potassium sulphate. Calcium carbonate in such quantity that the content of tartaric acid in the finished wine shall not be less than 0.15 percent weight by volume. Also, sulphurous acid, including salts thereof, in such quantity that its content in the finished wine shall not exceed 70 parts per million in the free state, or 350 parts per million in the combined state, calculated as sulphur dioxide. Caramel, amylase and pectinase at a maximum level of use consistent with good manufacturing practice. Prior to final filtration may be treated with a strongly acid cation exchange resin in the sodium ion form, or a weakly basic anion exchange resin in the hydroxyl ion form.
Vintage wines are generally bottled in a single batch so that each bottle will have a similar taste. Climate's impact on the character of a wine can be significant enough to cause different vintages from the same vineyard to vary dramatically in flavor and quality. Thus, vintage wines are produced to be individually characteristic of the particular vintage and to serve as the flagship wines of the producer. Superior vintages from reputable producers and regions will often command much higher prices than their average ones. Some vintage wines (e.g. Brunello), are only made in better-than-average years.
For consistency, non-vintage wines can be blended from more than one vintage, which helps wine-makers sustain a reliable market image and maintain sales even in bad years. One recent study suggests that for the average wine drinker, the vintage year may not be as significant for perceived quality as had been thought, although wine connoisseurs continue to place great importance on it.
During aeration, a younger wine's exposure to air often "relaxes" the drink, making it smoother and better integrated in aroma, texture, and flavor. Older wines generally fade (lose their character and flavor intensity) with extended aeration. Despite these general rules, breathing does not necessarily benefit all wines. Wine may be tasted as soon as the bottle is opened to determine how long it should be aerated, if at all. When tasting wine, individual flavors may also be detected, due to the complex mix of organic molecules (e.g. and ) that grape juice and wine can contain. Experienced tasters can distinguish between flavors characteristic of a specific grape and flavors that result from other factors in wine-making. Typical intentional flavor elements in wine—chocolate, vanilla, or coffee—are those imparted by aging in oak casks rather than the grape itself.
Vertical and horizontal tasting involves a range of vintages within the same grape and vineyard, or the latter in which there is one vintage from multiple vineyards. "Banana" flavors (isoamyl acetate) are the product of yeast metabolism, as are spoilage aromas such as "medicinal" or "Band-Aid" (4-ethylphenol), "spicy" or "smoky" (4-ethylguaiacol), and rotten egg (hydrogen sulfide). Some varieties can also exhibit a mineral flavor due to the presence of water-soluble salts as a result of limestone's presence in the vineyard's soil. Wine aroma comes from volatile compounds released into the air. Vaporization of these compounds can be accelerated by twirling the wine glass or serving at room temperature. Many drinkers prefer to chill red wines that are already highly aromatic, like Chinon AOC and Beaujolais.
The ideal temperature for serving a particular wine is a matter of debate by wine enthusiasts and sommeliers, but some broad guidelines have emerged that will generally enhance the experience of tasting certain common wines. White wine should foster a sense of coolness, achieved by serving at "cellar temperature" (). Light red wines drunk young should also be brought to the table at this temperature, where they will quickly rise a few degrees. Red wines are generally perceived best when served chambré ("at room temperature"). However, this does not mean the temperature of the dining room—often around —but rather the coolest room in the house and, therefore, always slightly cooler than the dining room itself. Pinot noir should be brought to the table for serving at and will reach its full bouquet at . Cabernet Sauvignon, zinfandel, and Rhone varieties should be served at and allowed to warm on the table to for best aroma.
Wine is important in cuisine not just for its value as a drink, but as a flavor agent, primarily in stocks and braising, since its acidity lends balance to rich savoury or sweet dishes. Wine sauce is an example of a culinary sauce that uses wine as a primary ingredient. Natural wines may exhibit a broad range of alcohol content, from below 9% to above 16% ABV, with most wines being in the 12.5–14.5% range. See alcoholic strength at p. 10. (usually with brandy) may contain 20% alcohol or more.
Alcoholism is the inability to stop or control alcohol use despite harmful consequences to health, job, or relationships; alternative terms include alcohol use disorder, alcohol abuse, alcohol dependence, or alcohol addiction. and alcohol use is the third leading cause of early death in the United States. No professional medical association recommends that people who are nondrinkers should start drinking wine.
Excessive consumption of alcohol can cause liver cirrhosis and alcoholism. The American Heart Association "cautions people NOT to start drinking ... if they do not already drink alcohol. Consult your doctor on the benefits and risks of consuming alcohol in moderation."
Although red wine contains more of the stilbene resveratrol and of other polyphenols than white wine, the evidence for a cardiac health benefit is of poor quality and at most, the benefit is trivial. Grape skins naturally produce resveratrol in response to fungal infection, including exposure to yeast during fermentation. White wine generally contains lower levels of the chemical as it has minimal contact with grape skins during this process.
The ideal temperature for wine storage is with a humidity of 65–70%. Lower humidity levels and temperature fluctuations can dry out or stress a cork over time, allowing oxygen to enter the bottle, which reduces the wine's quality through oxidation. Wines with corks are typically stored horizontally to help keep the cork moist, but this is not necessary for screwcaps.
Investment in fine wine has attracted those who take advantage of their victims' relative ignorance of this wine market sector.
Many Protestants in the US use pasteurization grape juice as a substitute for wine, a practise dating from the mid-19th century when Methodism Thomas Bramwell Welch applied new pasteurization techniques to stop the natural fermentation process of grape juice. Some Christians who were part of the growing temperance movement popularized the substitution, and it spread quickly over much of the United States.
Certain exceptions to the ban on alcohol apply. Alcohol derived from a source other than the grape (or its byproducts) and the dateSahih Muslim Book 043, Hadith Number 7186. is allowed in "very small quantities" (loosely defined as a quantity that does not cause intoxication) under the Sunni Hanafi madhab, for specific purposes (such as medicines), where the goal is not intoxication. However, modern Hanafi scholars regard alcohol consumption as totally forbidden.
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