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A protectorate, in the context of international relations, is a state that is under protection by another state for defence against aggression and other violations of law. It is a dependent territory that enjoys over most of its internal affairs, while still recognizing the of a more powerful without being a possession. In exchange, the protectorate usually accepts specified obligations depending on the terms of their arrangement. Usually protectorates are established by a . Under certain conditions—as with Egypt under British rule (1882–1914)—a state can also be labelled as a de facto protectorate or a veiled protectorate.

A protectorate is different from a as it has local rulers, is not directly possessed, and rarely experiences by the suzerain state.

(1967). 9780714611396, Psychology Press. .
A state that is under the protection of another state while retaining its "international personality" is called a "protected state", not a protectorate.

History
Protectorates are one of the oldest features of international relations, dating back to the . Civitates foederatae were cities that were subordinate to Rome for their foreign relations. In the , was a protectorate of and . Modern protectorate concepts were devised in the nineteenth century.

Typology
Foreign relations
In practice, a protectorate often has direct only with the protector state, and transfers the management of all its more important international affairs to the latter. Similarly, the protectorate rarely takes military action on its own but relies on the protector for its defence. This is distinct from , in that the protector has no formal power to control the internal affairs of the protectorate.

Protectorates differ from League of Nations mandates and their successors, United Nations trust territories, whose administration is supervised, in varying degrees, by the international community. A protectorate formally enters into the protection through a bilateral agreement with the protector, while international mandates are stewarded by the world community-representing body, with or without a de facto administering power.

Protected state
A protected state has a form of protection where it continues to retain an "international personality" and enjoys an agreed amount of independence in conducting its foreign policy. : "First, protected states are entities which still have substantial authority in their internal affairs, retain some control over their foreign policy, and establish their relation to the protecting state on a treaty or another legal instrument. Protected states still have qualifications of statehood."

For political and pragmatic reasons, the protection relationship is not usually advertised, but described with euphemisms such as "an independent state with special treaty relations" with the protecting state. A protected state appears on world maps just as any other independent state.

International administration of a state can also be regarded as an internationalized form of protection, where the protector is an international organisation rather than a state.

Colonial protection
Multiple regions—such as the , the Colony and Protectorate of Lagos, and similar—were subjects of colonial protection. Conditions of protection are generally much less generous for areas of colonial protection. The protectorate was often reduced to a condition similar to a colony, but with the pre-existing native state continuing as the agent of . Occasionally, a protectorate was established by another form of indirect rule: a chartered company, which becomes a de facto state in its European home state (but geographically overseas), allowed to be an independent country with its own foreign policy and generally its own armed forces.

In fact, protectorates were often declared despite no agreement being duly entered into by the state supposedly being protected, or only agreed to by a party of dubious authority in those states. Colonial protectors frequently decided to reshuffle several protectorates into a new, artificial unit without consulting the protectorates, without being mindful of the theoretical duty of a protector to help maintain a protectorate's status and integrity. The Berlin agreement of February 26, 1885, allowed European colonial powers to establish protectorates in Black Africa (the last region to be divided among them) by diplomatic notification, even without actual possession on the ground. This aspect of history is referred to as the Scramble for Africa. A similar case is the formal use of such terms as colony and protectorate for an amalgamation—convenient only for the colonizer or protector—of adjacent territories, over which it held (de facto) sway by protective or "raw" colonial power.

Amical protection
In amical protection—as of United States of the Ionian Islands by Britain—the terms are often very favourable for the protectorate. The political interest of the protector is frequently moral (a matter of accepted moral obligation, prestige, ideology, internal popularity, or , historical, or ethnocultural ties). Also, the protector's interest is in countering a rival or enemy power—such as preventing the rival from obtaining or maintaining control of areas of strategic importance. This may involve a very weak protectorate surrendering control of its external relations but may not constitute any real sacrifice, as the protectorate may not have been able to have a similar use of them without the protector's strength.

Amical protection was frequently extended by the to other Christian (generally European) states, and to states of no significant importance. After 1815, non-Christian states (such as the Chinese Qing dynasty) also provided amical protection of other, much weaker states.

In modern times, a form of amical protection can be seen as an important or defining feature of . According to the definition proposed by Dumienski (2014): "microstates are modern protected states, i.e. sovereign states that have been able to unilaterally depute certain attributes of sovereignty to larger powers in exchange for benign protection of their political and economic viability against their geographic or demographic constraints".

Argentina's protectorates
  • (1815–1820)
  • (1817–1818)
  • Republic of Tucumán (1820–1821)
  • Peru (1820–1822)
  • Gobierno del Cerrito (1843–1851)
  • (1876)

Brazil's protectorates
  • Republic of Acre (1899–1903)
  • (1869–1876)
  • Uruguay (1828–1835)
British Empire's protectorates and protected states
Americas

Europe
  • Malta Protectorate (1800–1813); Crown Colony of Malta proclaimed in 1813 (de jure part of the Kingdom of Sicily but under British protection)
  • Ionian islands (1815–1864; a state and amical protectorate of Great Britain between 1815 and 1864)
  • (1878–1914; put under British military administration (1914–22) then proclaimed a Crown Colony (1922–60))

South Asia
  • Cis-Sutlej states (1809–1862)
  • (1816–1923; protected state)
  • (1861–1947), (1947–1972)
  • (1776–1965, 1965–1968, 1968–1990)
  • Various (1845–1947)
  • (1906–1947 and 1948; protected state)

West and Central Asia
  • British Residency of the Persian Gulf (1822–1971; headquarters based in , )
    • (1880–1971; protected state)
    • Sheikhdom of Kuwait (1899–1961; protected state)
    • , protected state (1916–1971)
    • (1892–1971; precursor state of the modern UAE, protected states)
      • Abu Dhabi (1820–1971)
      • Ajman (1820–1971)
      • Dubai (1835–1971)
      • Fujairah (1952–1971)
      • Ras Al Khaimah (1820–1971)
      • Sharjah (1820–1971)
      • Umm al-Qaiwain (1820–1971)
    • (1892–1971; informal, protected state)
  • Aden Protectorate (1872–1963; precursor state of )
  • (1879–1919; protected state)
  • (1919–1947, 1948, 1950, 1956)

Africa
  • (1884–1990)
  • Bechuanaland Protectorate (1885–1966)
  • Protectorate (1889–1980)
  • Nyasaland Protectorate (1893–1964)
    • British Central Africa Protectorate (1889–1907)
  • (1890–1964)
  • Gambia Colony and Protectorate* (1894–1971)
  • Uganda Protectorate (1894–1963)
  • East Africa Protectorate (1895–1920)
  • Sierra Leone Protectorate* (1896–1961)
  • * (1914–1964)
  • Northern Nigeria Protectorate (1900–1914)
  • Swaziland (1903–1968)
  • Southern Nigeria Protectorate (1900–1914)
  • Northern Territories of the Gold Coast (British protectorate) (1901–1957)/(1957–1960)
  • Sultanate of Egypt (1914–1922)
  • * (1920–1963'1964)
  • (1922–1936)
  • (1924–1964'1965'1980)
*protectorates which existed alongside a colony of the same name

De facto
  • Khediviate of Egypt (1882–1913)

Oceania
  • (1884–1888)
  • (1877–1916)
  • Cook Islands (1888–1893)
  • (1892–1916)
  • British Solomon Islands (1893–1978)
  • (1900–1901)
  • (1900–1970)

Southeast Asia
  • British North Borneo (1888–1946)
  • (1888–1984)
  • (1888–1946)
  • Federation of Malaya (1948–1963)
    • (1895–1963)
      • (1888–1895)
      • (1888–1895)
      • (1874–1895)
      • (1874–1895)
    • Unfederated Malay States (1904/09–1946)
      • (1914–1946)
      • (1909–1946)
      • (1909–1946)
      • (1909–1946)
      • (1909–1946)

China's protectorates
  • :
    • Protectorate of the Western Regions
  • :
    • Protectorate General to Pacify the West
    • Protectorate General to Pacify the North
    • Protectorate General to Pacify the East
  • :
    • (1270–1356)"A History of Korea: From Antiquity to the Present, by Michael J. Seth", p112
  • :

Dutch Empire's protectorates
Various sultanates in the Dutch East Indies (present day Indonesia):

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  • Tarumon Kingdom (1830–1946)
  • Langkat Sultanate (26 October 1869 – December 1945)
  • Deli Sultanate (22 August 1862 – December 1945)
  • (27 September 1865 – December 1945)
  • Bila (1864–1946)
  • Tasik (Kota Pinang) (1865 – December 1945)
  • Siak Sultanate (1 February 1858 – 1946)
  • Sungai Taras (Kampong Raja) (1864–1916)
  • Panei (1864–1946)
  • Sultanate of Serdang (1865 – December 1945)
  • Indragiri Sultanate (1838 – September 1945)
  • (1833–1899)
  • (1886–1946)
  • Pelalawan (1859 – November 1945)
  • (1904–1946)
  • Tanah Jawa (1904–1946)

[[Riau Archipelago/" itemprop="url" title="Wiki: riau_archipela"> <hr class="us2411627114"> <span class="us3003804241 us1353177739">[[Riau Archipelago">riau_archipela">
[[Riau Archipelago
  • Lingga-Riau (1819–1911)

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  • (1682–1811)
  • (1684–1819)
  • Yogjakarta Sultanate (13 February 1755 – 1942)
  • Mataram Sultanate (later Surakarta Sunanate) (26 February 1677 – 19 August 1945)
  • (24 February 1757 – 1946)
  • (22 June 1812 – 1942)
  • (1682–1809)

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and Solor
  • Larantuka (1860–1904)
  • Tanah Kuna Lima (1917–1924)
  • Ndona (1917–1924)
  • (1879–c. 1947)

  • Sultanate of Banjar (1826–1860)
  • Pontianak Sultanate (16 August 1819 – 1942)
  • Sambas Sultanate (1819–1949)
  • Kubu (4 June 1823 – 1949)
  • (1819–c. 1949)
  • (1819–1942)
  • (182?–1949)
  • (182?–c. 1949)
  • Simpang (1822–c. 1949)
  • (1822–1949)
  • (1828–c.1949)
  • Kota Waringin Sultanate (1824–1949)
  • (8 August 1825 – 1949)
  • Gunung Tabur (1844–c.1945)
  • Bulungan Sultanate (1844–c.1949)
  • Simbaliung (1844–c. 1949)
  • Kubu (1823–1949)
  • Tayan (1823–c. 1949)

  • Gowa Sultanate (1669–1906; 1936–1949)
  • (1669–1905)
  • Bolaang Mongonduw (1825–c. 1949)
  • Laiwui (1858–c. 1949)
  • (1861–c. 1949)
  • Soppeng (1860–c. 1949)
  • Butung (1824–c. 1949)
  • Siau (1680–c. 1949)
  • Banggai (1907–c. 1949)
  • Tallo (1668–1780)
  • Wajo (1860–c. 1949)
  • Tabukan (1677–c. 1949)

Confederacy (1905–c. 1949)
  • Malusetasi
  • Rapang
  • Swaito (union of Sawito and Alita, 1908)
  • Sidenreng
  • Supa

Mabbatupappeng Confederacy (1906–c. 1949)
  • Soppengriaja (union of Balusu, Kiru, Kamiri, 1906)

Mandar Confederacy (1906–c. 1949)

Massenrempulu Confederacy (1905–c. 1949)

  • Ternate Sultanate (12 October 1676 – 1949)
  • Bacan Sultanate (1667–1949)
  • Tidore (1657–c.1949)

_a">
and Alor
  • Amanatun (1749–c. 1949)
  • Amanuban (1749–c. 1949)
  • Amarasi (1749–c. 1949)
  • Amfoan (1683–c. 1949)
  • Beboki (1756–c. 1949)
  • Belu (1756–c.1949)
  • Insana (1756–c.1949)
  • Sonbai Besar (1756–1906)
  • Sonbai Kecil (1659–1917)
  • Roti (Korbafo before 1928) (c. 1750–c.1949)
  • TaEbenu (1688–1917)

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  • Dutch New Guinea:
    • Kaimana Sultanate (1828-1949)

France's protectorates and protected states
Africa
"Protection" was the formal legal structure under which French colonial forces expanded in Africa between the 1830s and 1900. Almost every pre-existing state that was later part of French West Africa was placed under protectorate status at some point, although gradually replaced protectorate agreements. Formal ruling structures, or fictive recreations of them, were largely retained—as with the low-level authority figures in the French Cercles—with leaders appointed and removed by French officials.See the classic account on this in Robert Delavignette. Freedom and Authority in French West Africa. London: Oxford University Press, (1950). The more recent standard studies on French expansion include:
Robert Aldrich. Greater France: A History of French Overseas Expansion. Palgrave MacMillan (1996) .
Alice L. Conklin. A Mission to Civilize: The Republican Idea of Empire in France and West Africa 1895–1930. Stanford: Stanford University Press (1998), .
Patrick Manning. Francophone Sub-Saharan Africa, 1880–1995. Cambridge University Press (1998) .
Jean Suret-Canale. Afrique Noire: l'Ere Coloniale (Editions Sociales, Paris, 1971); Eng. translation, French Colonialism in Tropical Africa, 1900 1945. (New York, 1971).

  • traditional states
    • Independent of , under French protectorate, from 1889
    • a French protectorate, 23 February 1863 – 2 January 1865. a French Protectorate, 19 May 1868. French protectorate, 14 April 1882.
  • Central African Republic traditional states:
    • French protectorate over (1912 Sultanate suppressed by the French), 12 December 1897
    • French protectorate over the Sultanate of , 1894
  • was from 20 February 1895 a French protectorate named Upper Volta (Haute-Volta)
  • : state 20 September 1897 a French protectorate
  • Côte d'Ivoire: 10 January 1889 French protectorate of Ivory Coast
  • : 5 August 1849 French protectorate over coastal region; (Riviéres du Sud).
  • , Sultanate of Damagaram (), 30 July 1899 under French protectorate over the native rulers, titled Damagaram or Sultan
  • : 4 February 1850 First of several French protectorate treaties with local rulers
  • : 21 April 1886 French protectorate () until 25 July 1912 when annexed.
  • Present was originally, from 24 June 1884, the Territory of and Protectorate of (Territoires Français d'Obock, Tadjoura, Dankils et Somalis), a French protectorate recognized by Britain on 9 February 1888, renamed on 20 May 1896 as French Somaliland (Côte Française des Somalis).
  • : 12 May 1903 French protectorate; within Mauritania several traditional states:
    • Adrar emirate from 9 January 1909 French protectorate (before Spanish)
    • The Taganit confederation's emirate (founded by Idaw `Ish dynasty), from 1905 under French protectorate.
    • confederation's emirate
    • Emirate of Trarza: 15 December 1902 placed under French protectorate status.
  • Morocco – most of the sultanate was under French protectorate (30 March 1912 – 7 April 1956) although, in theory, it remained a sovereign state under the Treaty of Fez;
    (1991). 9789231027161, Martinus Nijhoff Publishers. .
    this fact was confirmed by the International Court of Justice in 1952.
    (1995). 9780792329930, Martinus Nijhoff Publishers. .
    • The northern part of was under Spanish protectorate in the same period.
  • Traditional States
    • Kingdom of Imerina under French protectorate, 6 August 1896. French Madagascar colony, 28 February 1897.
  • (12 May 1881 – 20 March 1956): became a French protectorate by treaty

Americas
  • Second Mexican Empire (1863–1867), established by Emperor during the Second French intervention in Mexico and ruled by the Austrian-born, French puppet monarch Maximilian I

Asia
  • until 1953/54:
    • Annam and Tonkin 6 June 1884
    • Cambodia 11 August 1863
    • Laos 3 October 1893
    • 6 June 1884

Europe
  • (1923–1924)
  • Saar Protectorate (1946–1956), not colonial or amical, but a former part of Germany that would by referendum return to it, in fact a re-edition of a former League of Nations mandate. Most French protectorates were colonial.

Oceania
  • , mainly (several others were immediately annexed).C. W. Newbury. Aspects of French Policy in the Pacific, 1853–1906. The Pacific Historical Review, Vol. 27, No. 1 (Feb., 1958), pp. 45–56 All eventually were annexed by 1889.
    • (native king styled Ari`i rahi) becomes a French protectorate known as Tahiti, 1842–1880
    • and (after temporary annexation by Otaheiti; (title Ari`i) a French protectorate, 1880)
    • (one of the ; ruler title `Akariki) a French protectorate, 16 February 1844 (unratified) and 30 November 1871
  • Wallis and Futuna:
    • Wallis declared to be a French protectorate by King of Uvea and Captain Mallet, 4 November 1842. Officially in a treaty becomes a French protectorate, 5 April 1887.
    • and Alo on the islands of Futuna and signed a treaty establishing a French protectorate on 16 February 1888.

Germany's protectorates and protected states
The used the word Schutzgebiet, literally protectorate, for all of its colonial possessions until they were lost during World War I, regardless of the actual level of government control. Cases involving indirect rule included:

Before and during World War II, designated the rump of occupied and as protectorates:

  • Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia (1939–1945), however it was also considered a partially annexed territory of Germany
  • Denmark (1940–1943)

India's protectorates
  • Bhutan (1947–1971).
  • Kingdom of Sikkim (1950–1975), later acceded to India as .

Italy's protectorates and protected states
  • The Albanian Republic (1917–1920) and the Albanian Kingdom (1939–1943)
  • under amical Protectorate of the Kingdom of Sardinia 20 November 1815 to 1860.
  • : 2 May 1889 Treaty of Wuchale, in the version, stated that Ethiopia was to become an Italian protectorate, while the Ethiopian version merely stated that the Emperor could, if he so chose, go through Italy to conduct foreign affairs. When the differences in the versions came to light, Emperor Menelik II abrogated first the article in question (XVII), and later the whole treaty. The event culminated in the First Italo-Ethiopian War, in which Ethiopia was victorious and defended her sovereignty in 1896.
  • : on 15 October 1912 Italian protectorate declared over (Cyrenaica) until 17 May 1919.
  • in Somalia: 3 August 1889 Italian protectorate (in the northeast; unoccupied until May 1893), until 16 March 1905 when it changed to Italian Somaliland.
    • Majeerteen Sultanate since 7 April 1889 under Italian protectorate (renewed 7 April 1895), then in 1927 incorporated into the Italian colony.
    • Sultanate of Hobyo since December 1888 under Italian protectorate (renewed 11 April 1895), then in October 1925 incorporated into the Italian colony (known as Obbia).

Japan's protectorates

Poland's protectorates
  • Kaffa (1462–1475)

Portugal's protectorates
  • Cabinda (Portuguese Congo) (1885–1974), Portugal first claimed sovereignty over Cabinda in the February 1885 Treaty of Simulambuco, which gave Cabinda the status of a protectorate of the under the request of "the princes and governors of Cabinda".
  • Kingdom of Kongo (1857–1914)
  • (1824–1895), now part of
  • Angoche Sultanate (1903–1910)
  • Kingdom of Larantuka (1515–1859)

Russia's and the Soviet Union's protectorates and protected states
  • Cossack Hetmanate (1654–1764)
  • Kingdom of Kartli-Kakheti (1783–1801)
  • Kingdom of Imereti (1804–1810)
  • Revolutionary Serbia (1807–1812)
  • Principality of Serbia (1826–1856), now part of
  • (1829–1856), now part of , and
  • (1829–1856)
  • Emirate of Bukhara (1873–1920)
  • Khanate of Khiva (1873–1920)
  • (1914)
  • Second East Turkestan Republic (1944–1949), now part of ,

De facto
Some sources mention the following territories as Russian protectorates:

  • (2008–present)
  • (1992–present)
  • (1994–present)
  • Donetsk People's Republic (2015–2022)
  • Luhansk People's Republic (2015–2022)
  • Republic of Artsakh (2020–2023)

Spain's protectorates
  • Spanish Morocco protectorate from 27 November 1912 until 2 April 1958 (Northern zone until 7 April 1956, Southern zone () until 2 April 1958).
  • Sultanate of Sulu (1851–1899)
Turkey's and the Ottoman Empire's protectorates and protected states

De facto
United Nations' protectorates
United States' protectorates and protected states
After becoming independent nations in 1902 and 1903 respectively, and became protectorates of the . In 1903, Cuba and the U.S. signed the Cuban–American Treaty of Relations, which affirmed the provisions of the , including that the U.S. had the right to intervene in Cuba to preserve its independence, among other reasons (the Platt Amendment had also been integrated into the 1901 constitution of Cuba). Later that year, Panama and the U.S. signed the Hay–Bunau-Varilla Treaty, which established the Panama Canal Zone and gave the U.S. the right to intervene in the cities of and Colón (and the adjacent territories and harbors) for the maintenance of public order. The 1904 constitution of Panama, in Article 136, also gave the U.S. the right to intervene in any part of Panama "to reestablish public peace and constitutional order." later also became a protectorate after the ratification of the Haitian–American Convention (which gave the U.S. the right to intervene in Haiti for a period of ten years, which was later expanded to twenty years through an additional agreement in 1917) on September 16, 1915.

The U.S. also attempted to establish protectorates over the Dominican Republic and through the Bryan–Chamorro Treaty.

  • Cuba (1902–1934)
  • (1903–1941)
  • Haiti (1915–1936)

De facto
  • Republic of Negros (1899–1901)
  • Republic of Zamboanga (1899–1903)
  • Sultanate of Sulu (1899–1915)

Contemporary usage by the United States
Some agencies of the United States government, such as the Environmental Protection Agency, refer to the District of Columbia and of the United States—such as and the U.S. Virgin Islands—as protectorates. However, the agency responsible for the administration of those areas, the Office of Insular Affairs within the United States Department of the Interior, uses only the term "insular area" rather than protectorate.

Joint protectorates
  • Republic of Ragusa (1684–1798), a joint Habsburg Austrian– protectorate
  • The United States of the Ionian Islands and the Septinsular Republic were federal republics of seven formerly Venetian (see ) Ionian Islands (, , , , Ithaca, , and Paxos), officially under joint protectorate of the allied Christian powers, de facto a British amical protectorate from 1815 to 1864.
  • Anglo-Egyptian Sudan (1899–1956)
  • Independent State of Croatia (1941–1943)
  • Allied-occupied Germany (1945–1949)
  • Allied-occupied Austria (1945–1955)

See also
  • British Protected Person
  • European Union Police Mission in Bosnia and Herzegovina
  • High Representative for Bosnia and Herzegovina
  • League of Nations mandate
  • Peace Implementation Council
  • Protector (titles for Heads of State and other individual persons)
  • Protectorate (imperial China)
  • Timeline of national independence

Notes
Bibliography

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