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Polytheism is the belief in or worship of more than one Deity. According to Oxford Reference, it is not easy to count gods, and so not always obvious whether an apparently polytheistic religion, such as Chinese folk religions, is really so, or whether the apparent different objects of worship are to be thought of as manifestations of a singular divinity. Polytheistic belief is usually assembled into a pantheon of gods and , along with their own and . Polytheism is a type of theism. Within theism, it contrasts with monotheism, the belief in a God who is, in most cases, transcendent.
In religions that accept polytheism, the different gods and goddesses may be representations of forces of nature or ancestral principles; they can be viewed either as autonomous or as aspects or emanationism of a creator deity or transcendental absolute principle (monism theologies), which manifests immanence in nature (panentheism and pantheism theologies).Ulrich Libbrecht. Within the Four Seas...: Introduction to Comparative Philosophy. Peeters Publishers, 2007. . p. 42. Polytheists do not always worship all the gods equally; they can be in monolatrists or kathenotheists, specializing in the worship of one particular deity only or at certain times (respectively).
The recognition of the existence of multiple gods and goddesses does not necessarily equate to the worship of all the deities of one or more pantheons, as the believer can either worship them as a whole, or concentrate only on a specific group of deities, determined by various conditions such as the believer's occupation, tastes, personal experience, family tradition, etc. It is also possible to worship a single deity, considered supreme, without ruling out the existence of other gods. This religious position has been called henotheism, but some prefer to call it monolatry. Although the term "henotheism" is controversial, it is recognized by scholars that the worship of a single God accompanied by belief in other deities maintains the principle of polytheism.
Polytheism was the typical form of religion before the development and spread of the Abrahamic religions of Judaism, Christianity, and Islam, which enforce monotheism. However, there are still some dualistic aspects, such as Satan, and polytheistic aspects, such as Saint. Saint Brigid is in fact Brigit, the main goddess of Celtic Ireland. It is well documented throughout history, from prehistory and the earliest records of ancient Egyptian religion and ancient Mesopotamian religion to the religions prevalent during Classical antiquity, such as ancient Greek religion and ancient Roman religion, and in ethnic religions such as Germanic, Slavic paganism, and Baltic mythology and Native American religions. Notable polytheistic religions practiced today include Taoism, Shenism or Chinese folk religion, Shinto, Santería, most Traditional African religions, and various modern Paganism faiths such as Wicca and Hellenism.
Hinduism, while popularly held as polytheistic by many scholars, cannot be exclusively categorised as such as some Hindus consider themselves to be Pantheism, Panentheism, Henotheism, polymorphist, Monotheism or Monism. Hinduism does not have a single book, Hinduism is an umbrella term for a collection of ideologies. They are compatible with Hindu texts, since there exists no consensus of standardisation in the faith. Vedanta, the most dominant school of Hinduism, offers a combination of pantheism/panentheism and polytheism, holding that Brahman is the sole ultimate reality of the universe, yet unity with it can be reached by worshipping the innumerable deities that represent the Supreme Absolute Truth. Hindus who practice Bhakti ultimately believe in one God, who is known variously as Paramatman, Parabrahman, Bhagavan, Ishvara, and so on, that transcends all categories (e.g. both of form and formless), however the common people who remain unaware of these concepts worship their deities as ultimate god. Different regions can have their own local deities whose worship is restricted to that region. Bramhan is personification of the concept of Moksha and the different gods are paths to moksha or realising the Brahman.
"Soft" polytheism is the belief that different gods may either be psychological archetypes, personifications of natural forces, or as being one essential god interpreted through the lenses of different cultures (e.g. Odin, Zeus, and Indra all being the same god as interpreted by Germanic, Greek, and Indic peoples respectively) – known as . In this way, gods may be interchangeable for one another across cultures.
"Hard" polytheism is the belief that gods are distinct, separate, real divine beings, rather than psychological archetypes or personifications of natural forces. Hard polytheists reject the idea that "all gods are one essential god" and may also reject the existence of gods outside their own pantheon altogether.
The beliefs of many historical polytheistic religions are commonly referred to as "mythology",Eugenie C. Scott, Evolution Vs. Creationism: An Introduction (2009), p. 58. though the stories cultures tell about their gods should be distinguished from their worship or religious practice. For instance, deities portrayed in conflict in mythology were often nonetheless worshipped side by side, illustrating the distinction within the religion between belief and practice. Scholars such as Jaan Puhvel, J. P. Mallory, and Douglas Q. Adams have reconstructed aspects of the ancient Proto-Indo-European religion from which the religions of the various Indo-European peoples are thought to derive, which is believed to have been an essentially naturalist Numenism religion. An example of a religious notion from this shared past is the concept of Dyeus, which is attested in several religious systems of Indo-European-speaking peoples.
In many civilizations, pantheons tended to grow over time. Deities first worshipped as the patrons of cities or other places came to be collected together as empires extended over larger territories. Conquests could lead to the subordination of a culture's pantheon to that of the invaders, as in the Greek Titanomachia, and possibly also the Æsir–Vanir war in the Norse mythology. Cultural exchange could lead to "the same" deity being revered in two places under different names, as seen with the Greeks, Etruscans, and Romans, and also to the cultural transmission of elements of an extraneous religion, as with the deity Osiris, who was later worshipped in ancient Greece.
Most ancient belief systems held that gods influenced human lives. However, the Greek philosopher Epicurus held that the gods were incorruptible but material, blissful beings who inhabited the empty spaces between worlds and did not trouble themselves with the affairs of mortals, but could be perceived by the mind, especially during sleep.
Hellenic Polytheism extended beyond mainland Greece, to the islands and coasts of Ionia in Asia Minor, to Magna Graecia (Sicily and southern Italy), and to scattered Greek colonies in the Western Mediterranean, such as Marseille (Marseille). Greek religion tempered Etruscan cult and belief to form much of the later Roman religion. During the Hellenistic Era, philosophical schools like Epicureanism developed distinct theologies. Hellenism is, in practice, primarily centered around polytheistic and animistic worship.
Folk religions are often closely tied to animism. Animistic beliefs are found in historical and modern cultures. Folk beliefs are often labeled superstitions when they are present in monotheistic societies. Folk religions often do not have organized authorities, also known as priesthoods, or any formal sacred texts. They often coincide with other religions as well. Abrahamic monotheistic religions, which dominate the western world, typically do not approve of practicing parts of multiple religions, but folk religions often overlap with others. Followers of polytheistic religions do not often problematize following practices and beliefs from multiple religions.
Mormon theology posits that scriptural statements on the unity of the Father, the Son, and the Holy Ghost represent a unity of purpose, not substance. They believe that the early Christian Church did not characterize divinity in terms of an immaterial, formless, shared substance until post-apostolic theologians began to incorporate Greek metaphysical philosophies (such as Neoplatonism) into Christian doctrine. Mormons believe that the truth about God's nature was restored through modern-day revelation, which reinstated the original Judeo-Christian concept of a natural, corporeal, immortal God, who is the literal father of the spirits of humans. It is to this personage alone that Mormons pray, as he is and always will be their Heavenly Father, the supreme "God of gods" (Deuteronomy 10:17). In the sense that Mormons worship only God the Father, they consider themselves monotheists. Nevertheless, Mormons adhere to Jesus's teaching that those who receive God's Word can obtain the title of "gods" (John 10:33–36) because, as literal children of God, they can take upon themselves his divine attributes. Mormons teach that "The glory of God is intelligence" (Doctrine and Covenants 93:36), and that it is by sharing the Father's perfect comprehension of all things that both Jesus and the Holy Spirit are also divine.
Hindus venerate deities in the form of the murti, or idol. The Puja (worship) of the pratima is like a way to communicate with the formless, abstract divinity (Brahman in Hinduism) which creates, sustains and dissolves creation. However, some sects have advocated that there is no need to give a shape to God and that it is omnipresent and beyond what humans can see or feel tangibly. These gods were not worshipped without a proper consecration ritual. It was believed that after the consecration ritual, the idol no longer remained as stone or metal and attained a temporary or permanent state of divinity.
Some Hindu philosophers and theologians argue for a transcendent metaphysical structure with a single divine essence. This divine essence is usually referred to as Brahman or Atman, but the understanding of the nature of this absolute divine essence is the line which defines many Hindu philosophical traditions such as Vedanta.
Among lay Hindus, some believe in different deities emanating from Brahman, while others practice more traditional polytheism and henotheism. These practices focus worship on one or more personal deities while granting the existence of others.
Academically speaking, the ancient Vedic scriptures, upon which Hinduism is derived, describe four authorized disciplic lines of teaching coming down over thousands of years. (Padma Purana). Four propound that the Absolute Truth is Fully Personal, as in Judeo-Christian theology. They say that the Primal Original God is Personal, both transcendent and immanent throughout creation. He can be and is often approached through worship of Prathimas, called "Archa-Vigraha", described in the Vedas as identical to his various dynamic, spiritual Forms. This is the Vaisnava theology.
The fifth disciplic line of Vedic spirituality, founded by Adi Shankaracharya, promotes the concept that the Absolute is Brahman, without clear differentiations, will, thought, or intelligence.
In the Smarta denomination of Hinduism, the philosophy of Advaita expounded by Adi Shankara allows veneration of numerous deities with the understanding that all of them are but manifestations of one impersonal divine power, Brahman. Therefore, according to various schools of Vedanta including Shankara, which is the most influential and important Hindu theological tradition, there are a great number of deities in Hinduism, such as Vishnu, Shiva, Ganesha, Hanuman, Lakshmi, Kali, Parvati, Durga, Rama, Krishna but they are essentially different forms of the same "Being". However, many Vedantic philosophers also argue that the same impersonal, divine power united all individuals in the form of the Atman.
Many other Hindus, however, view polytheism as far preferable to monotheism. Ram Swarup, for example, points to the Vedas as being specifically polytheistic, and states that, "only some form of polytheism alone can do justice to this variety and richness."
Nasadiya Sukta (Hymn of non-Eternity, origin of universe):Some Hindus construe this notion of polytheism in the sense of polymorphism—one God with many forms or names. The Rig Veda, the primary Hindu scripture, elucidates this as follows:There was neither non-existence nor existence then;
Neither the realm of space, nor the sky which is beyond;
What stirred? Where? In whose protection?
There was neither death nor immortality then;
No distinguishing sign of night nor of day;
That One breathed, windless, by its own impulse;
Other than that there was nothing beyond.
Darkness there was at first, by darkness hidden;
Without distinctive marks, this all was water;
That which, becoming, by the void was covered;
That One by force of heat came into being;
Who really knows? Who will here proclaim it?
Whence was it produced? Whence is this creation?
Gods came afterwards, with the creation of this universe.
Who then knows whence it has arisen?
Whether God's will created it, or whether He was mute;
Perhaps it formed itself, or perhaps it did not;
The Supreme Brahman of the world, all pervasive and all knowing
He indeed knows, if not, no one knows
-Rigveda 10.129 (Abridged, Tr: Kramer / Christian)
They call him Indra, Mitra, Varuna, Agni, and he is heavenly nobly-winged Garutman. To what is One, sages give many a title they call it Agni, Yama, Matarisvan. Book I, Hymn 164, Verse 46 Rigveda
Prods Oktor Skjærvø states Zoroastrianism is henotheistic and "a dualistic and polytheistic religion, but with one supreme god, who is the father of the ordered cosmos".Prods Oktor Skjærvø (2006), Introduction to Zoroastrianism, 2005, Harvard University Archives, p. 15 with footnote 1 Other scholars state that this is unclear, because historic texts present a conflicting picture, ranging from Zoroastrianism's belief in "one god, two gods, or a best god henotheism".
It is suggested that Tengrism was a monotheistic religion only at the imperial level in aristocratic circles,Meserve, R., Religions in the central Asian environment. In: History of Civilizations of Central Asia, Vol. 4 , The age of achievement: A.D. 750 to the end of the fifteenth century, Part Two: The achievements, p. 68:
Fergus, Michael; Jandosova, Janar. , Stacey International, 2003, p. 91:
According to Jean-Paul Roux, the monotheistic concept evolved from a polytheistic system and was not the original form of Tengrism. The monotheistic concept helped to legitimate the rule of the dynasty: "As there is only one God in Heaven, there can only be one ruler on the earth ...".
Others point out that Tengri itself was never an Absolute, but only one of many gods of the upper world, the sky deity, of polytheistic shamanism, later known as Tengrism.
The term also describes several contemporary Turko-Mongolic native religious movements and teachings. All modern adherents of "political" Tengrism are monotheists.
Founder of Wicca Gerald Gardner helped to revive ancient polytheism. English people occultist Dion Fortune was a major populiser of soft polytheism. In her novel The Sea Priestess, she wrote, "All gods are one god, and all goddesses are one goddess, and there is one initiator." (2003). 9781578632909, Weiser. ISBN 9781578632909
Professor Paul Vitz, an opponent of Selfism sic, viewed America as a "most polytheistic nation".
The term has occasionally been used by Protestantism thinkers, such as Samuel Purchas, as an Anti-Catholicism condemnation of worship of "Saints, Images, and the Host".
Creighton University Philosophy professor William O. Stephens, who has taught this concept, suggests that C. D. Broad projected this concept in Broad's 1925 article, "The Validity of Belief in a Personal God".C. D. Broad, "The Validity of Belief in a Personal God", reprinted in C. D. Broad, Religion, Philosophy and Psychical Research, (1953), 159–174. Broad noted that the arguments for the existence of God only tend to prove that "a designing mind had existed in the past, not that it does exist now. It is quite compatible with this argument that God should have died long ago, or that he should have turned his attention to other parts of the Universe", and notes in the same breath that "there is nothing in the facts to suggest that there is only one such being".Id. at 171. Stephens contends that Broad, in turn, derived the concept from David Hume. Stephens states:
This use of the term appears to originate at least as early as Robert M. Bowman Jr.'s 1997 essay, Apologetics from Genesis to Revelation. Bowman wrote:
Sociologist Susan Starr Sered used the term in her 1994 book, Priestess, Mother, Sacred Sister: Religions Dominated by Women, which includes a chapter titled, "No Father in Heaven: Androgyny and Polydeism". She writes that she has "chosen to gloss on 'polydeism' a range of beliefs in more than one supernatural entity".Susan Starr Sered, Priestess, Mother, Sacred Sister: Religions Dominated by Women (1994), p. 169. Sered used this term in a way that would encompass polytheism, rather than exclude much of it, as she intended to capture both polytheistic systems and nontheistic systems that assert the influence of "spirits or ancestors". This use of the term, however, does not accord with the historical misuse of deism as a concept to describe an absent creator god.
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