Hara, is one of the Hindu deities of Hinduism.
In the Shaivite tradition, Shiva is the Supreme Lord who creates, protects and transforms the universe. In the goddess-oriented Shaktism tradition, the Supreme Goddess (Devi) is regarded as the energy and creative power (Shakti) and the equal complementary partner of Shiva. Shiva is one of the five equivalent deities in Panchayatana puja of the Smarta Tradition tradition of Hinduism.
Shiva has many aspects, benevolent as well as fearsome. In benevolent aspects, he is depicted as an Omniscience yogi who lives an ascetic life on Kailasa as well as a householder with his wife Parvati and his two children, Ganesha and Kartikeya. In his fierce aspects, he is often depicted slaying demons. Shiva is also known as Adiyogi (the first yogi), regarded as the patron god of yoga, meditation and the arts.[ Shiva Samhita, e.g. ; ; for Jnana Yoga.] The iconographical attributes of Shiva are the serpent king Vasuki around his neck, the adorning crescent moon, the holy river Ganga flowing from his matted hair, the third eye on his forehead (the eye that turns everything in front of it into ashes when opened), the trishula or trident as his weapon, and the damaru. He is usually worshiped in the aniconic form of lingam.
Though associated with Vedic minor deity Rudra, Shiva may have non-Vedic roots, evolving as an amalgamation of various older non-Vedic and Vedic deities, including the Rigvedic deity wind god Rudra who may also have non-Vedic origins, into a single major deity. Shiva is a pan-Hindu deity, revered widely by Hindus in India, Nepal, Bangladesh, Sri Lanka and Indonesia (especially in Java and Bali).
Etymology and other names
According to the Monier-Williams Sanskrit dictionary, the word "" (, also transliterated as shiva) means "auspicious, propitious, gracious, benign, kind, benevolent, friendly".[Monier Monier-Williams (1899), Sanskrit to English Dictionary with Etymology , Oxford University Press, pp. 1074–1076] The root words of in folk etymology are śī which means "in whom all things lie, pervasiveness" and va which means "embodiment of grace".
The word Shiva is used as an adjective in the Rig Veda (), as an epithet for several Rigvedic deities, including Rudra.[For use of the term as an epithet for other Vedic deities, see: .] The term Shiva also connotes "liberation, final emancipation" and "the auspicious one"; this adjectival usage is addressed to many deities in Vedic literature.
Sharma presents another etymology with the Sanskrit root -, which means "to injure" or "to kill",[For root - see: .] interpreting the name to connote "one who can kill the forces of darkness".
The Sanskrit word means "relating to the god Shiva", and this term is the Sanskrit name both for one of the principal sects of Hinduism and for a member of that sect. It is used as an adjective to characterise certain beliefs and practices, such as Shaivism.[For the definition "Śaivism refers to the traditions which follow the teachings of (]) and which focus on the deity ... " see:
Some authors associate the name with the Tamil language meaning "red", noting that Shiva is linked to the Sun (, "the Red one", in Tamil) and that Rudra is also called Babhru (brown, or red) in the Rigveda.
Shiva is known by many names such as Viswanatha (lord of the universe), Mahadeva, Mahandeo, Mahasu, Mahesha, Maheshvara, Shankara, Shambhu, Rudra, Hara, Trilochana, Devendra (chief of the gods), Neelakanta, Subhankara, Trilokinatha (lord of the three realms),[For translation see: .][For translation see: .][, Siva Sahasranama Stotram.] and Ghrneshwar (lord of compassion). The highest reverence for Shiva in Shaivism is reflected in his epithets ("Great god"; "Great" and deva "god"),[For appearance of the name महादेव in the Shiva Sahasranama see: ] ("Great Lord"; "great" and "lord"),[For appearance of the name in the Shiva Sahasranama see: ] and ("Supreme Lord").[For as "Supreme Lord" see: .]
Sahasranama are medieval Indian texts that list a thousand names derived from aspects and epithets of a deity.[Sir Monier Monier-Williams, sahasranAman, A Sanskrit-English Dictionary: Etymologically and Philologically Arranged with Special Reference to Cognate Indo-European Languages, Oxford University Press (Reprinted: Motilal Banarsidass), ] There are at least eight different versions of the Shiva Sahasranama, devotional hymns ( stotras) listing many names of Shiva.[For an overview of the Śatarudriya see: .][For complete Sanskrit text, translations, and commentary see: .]
Historical development and literature
Assimilation of traditions
The Shiva-related tradition is a major part of Hinduism, found all over the Indian subcontinent, such as India, Nepal, Sri Lanka, and Southeast Asia, such as Bali, Indonesia. Shiva-Rudra may have non-Vedic tribal roots, having "his origins in primitive tribes, signs and symbols," but the oldest literary attestion is the associated Vedic minor deity Rudra, who may also have non-Aryan origins. The figure of Shiva as he is known today is an amalgamation of various older deities into a single figure, due to the process of Sanskritization and the emergence of the Hindu synthesis in post-Vedic times. How the persona of Shiva converged as a composite deity is not well documented, a challenge to trace and has attracted much speculation.[For Shiva as a composite deity whose history is not well documented, see ] According to Vijay Nath:
An example of assimilation took place in Maharashtra, where a regional deity named Khandoba is a patron deity of farming and herding . The foremost center of worship of Khandoba in Maharashtra is in Jejuri.[For Jejuri as the foremost center of worship see: .] Khandoba has been assimilated as a form of Shiva himself, in which case he is worshipped in the form of a lingam.[For worship of Khandoba in the form of a lingam and possible identification with Shiva based on that, see: .] Khandoba's varied associations also include an identification with Surya and Karttikeya.[For use of the name Khandoba as a name for Karttikeya in Maharashtra, see: .]
Myths about Shiva that were "roughly contemporary with early Christianity" existed that portrayed Shiva with many differences than how he is thought of now, and these mythical portrayals of Shiva were incorporated into later versions of him. For instance, he and the other Hindu deities, from the highest gods to the least powerful gods, were thought of as somewhat human in nature, creating they had limited control over and having the ability to get in touch with their inner natures through asceticism like humans. In that era, Shiva was widely viewed as both the god of lust and of asceticism. In one story, he was seduced by a Prostitution sent by the other gods, who were jealous of Shiva's ascetic lifestyle he had lived for 1000 years.
Pre-Vedic elements
Prehistoric art
Prehistoric rock paintings dating to the Mesolithic from Bhimbetka rock shelters have been interpreted by some authors as depictions of Shiva. However, Howard Morphy states that these prehistoric rock paintings of India, when seen in their context, are likely those of hunting party with animals, and that the figures in a group dance can be interpreted in many different ways.
Indus Valley and the Pashupati seal
Of several Indus valley seals that show animals, one seal that has attracted attention shows a large central figure, either horned deity or wearing a horned headdress and possibly ithyphallic,[; . For a drawing of the seal see Figure 1 in ] seated in a posture reminiscent of the Lotus position, surrounded by animals. This figure was named by early excavators of Mohenjo-daro as Pashupati (Lord of Animals, Sanskrit ),[For translation of ] as "Lord of Animals" see: . an epithet of the later Hindu deities Shiva and Rudra. Sir John Marshall and others suggested that this figure is a prototype of Shiva, with three faces, seated in a "yoga posture" with the knees out and feet joined. Semi-circular shapes on the head were interpreted as two horns. Scholars such as Gavin Flood, John Keay and Doris Meth Srinivasan have expressed doubts about this suggestion.
Gavin Flood states that it is not clear from the seal that the figure has three faces, is seated in a yoga posture, or even that the shape is intended to represent a human figure. He characterises these views as "speculative", but adds that it is nevertheless possible that there are echoes of Shaiva iconographic themes, such as half-moon shapes resembling the horns of a bull. John Keay writes that "he may indeed be an early manifestation of Lord Shiva as Pashu-pati", but a couple of his specialties of this figure does not match with Rudra. Writing in 1997, Srinivasan interprets what John Marshall interpreted as facial as not human but more bovine, possibly a divine buffalo-man.
The interpretation of the seal continues to be disputed. McEvilley, for example, states that it is not possible to "account for this posture outside the yogic account".[Asko Parpola(2009), Deciphering the Indus Script, Cambridge University Press, , pp. 240–250] Gregory L. Possehl in 2002, associated it with the water buffalo, and concluded that while it would be appropriate to recognise the figure as a deity, and its posture as one of ritual discipline, regarding it as a proto-Shiva would "go too far".
Proto-Indo-European elements
The Vedic beliefs and practices of the pre-classical era were closely related to the hypothesised Proto-Indo-European religion,[, Quote: "The parallels between the names and legends of Shiva, Osiris and Dionysus are so numerous that there can be little doubt as to their original sameness".] or lateral exchanges with ancient central Asian cultures.[Pierfrancesco Callieri (2005), A Dionysian Scheme on a Seal from Gupta India , East and West, Vol. 55, No. 1/4 (December 2005), pp. 71–80] His contrasting aspects such as being terrifying or blissful depending on the situation, are similar to those of the Greek god Dionysus,[Wendy Doniger O'Flaherty (1980), Dionysus and Siva: Parallel Patterns in Two Pairs of Myths , History of Religions, Vol. 20, No. 1/2 (Aug. – Nov. 1980), pp. 81–111] Similarly, the use of phallic symbol as an icon for Shiva is also found for Irish, Nordic, Greek (Dionysus
Vedic elements
Rudra
Shiva as we know him today shares many features with the Vedic god Rudra, and both Shiva and Rudra are viewed as the same personality in Hindu texts. The two names are used synonymously. Rudra, a Rigvedic deity with fearsome powers, was the god of the roaring storm. He is usually portrayed in accordance with the element he represents as a fierce, destructive deity. In RV 2.33, he is described as the "Father of the Rudras", a group of storm gods.[Doniger, pp. 221–223.]
Flood notes that Rudra is an ambiguous god, peripheral in the Vedic pantheon, possibly indicating non-Vedic origins. Nevertheless, both Rudra and Shiva are akin to Odin, the Germanic God of rage ("wütte") and the wild hunt.
According to Sadasivan, during the development of the Hindu synthesis attributes of the Buddha were transferred by Brahmins to Shiva, who was also linked with Rudra. The Rigveda has 3 out of 1,028 hymns dedicated to Rudra, and he finds occasional mention in other hymns of the same text. Hymn 10.92 of the Rigveda states that deity Rudra has two natures, one wild and cruel (Rudra), another that is kind and tranquil (Shiva).
The term Shiva also appears simply as an epithet, that means "kind, auspicious", one of the adjectives used to describe many different Vedic deities. While fierce ruthless natural phenomenon and storm-related Rudra is feared in the hymns of the Rigveda, the beneficial rains he brings are welcomed as Shiva aspect of him. This healing, nurturing, life-enabling aspect emerges in the Vedas as Rudra-Shiva, and in post-Vedic literature ultimately as Shiva who combines the destructive and constructive powers, the terrific and the gentle, as the ultimate recycler and rejuvenator of all existence.
The Vedic texts do not mention bull or any animal as the transport vehicle ( vahana) of Rudra or other deities. However, post-Vedic texts such as the Mahabharata and the Puranas state the Nandi bull, the Indian zebu, in particular, as the vehicle of Rudra and of Shiva, thereby unmistakably linking them as same.
Agni
Rudra and Agni have a close relationship. The identification between Agni and Rudra in the Vedic literature was an important factor in the process of Rudra's gradual transformation into Rudra-Shiva. The identification of Agni with Rudra is explicitly noted in the Nirukta, an important early text on etymology, which says, "Agni is also called Rudra."[For translation from Nirukta 10.7, see: .] The interconnections between the two deities are complex, and according to Stella Kramrisch:
In the Śatarudrīya, some epithets of Rudra, such as ("Of golden red hue as of flame") and ("Flaming bright"), suggest a fusing of the two deities. Agni is said to be a bull,[For the parallel between the horns of Agni as bull, and Rudra, see: .][RV 8.49; 10.155.] In medieval sculpture, both Agni and the form of Shiva known as Bhairava have flaming hair as a special feature.[For flaming hair of Agni and Bhairava see: Sivaramamurti, p. 11.]
Indra
According to Wendy Doniger, the Saivite fertility myths and some of the phallic characteristics of Shiva are inherited from Indra.[For text of RV 6.45.17 as यो गृणतामिदासिथापिरूती शिवः सखा । स त्वं न इन्द्र मृलय ॥ and translation as " Indra, who has ever been the friend of those who praise you, and the insurer of their happiness by your protection, grant us felicity" see: , volume 3.][For translation of RV 6.45.17 as "Thou who hast been the singers' Friend, a Friend auspicious with thine aid, As such, O Indra, favour us" see: .] and 8.93.3.[For text of RV 8.93.3 as स न इन्द्रः सिवः सखाश्चावद् गोमद्यवमत् । उरूधारेव दोहते ॥ and translation as "May Indra, our auspicious friend, milk for us, like a richly-streaming (cow), wealth of horses, kine, and barley" see: , volume 2.]) Indra, like Shiva, is likened to a bull.[For the bull parallel between Indra and Rudra see: .][RV 7.19.] In the Rig Veda, Rudra is the father of the Maruts, but he is never associated with their warlike exploits as is Indra.[For the lack of warlike connections and difference between Indra and Rudra, see: .]
Indra himself may have been adopted by the Vedic Aryans from the Bactria–Margiana Culture. According to Anthony,
The texts and artwork of Jainism show Indra as a dancer, although not identical generally resembling the dancing Shiva artwork found in Hinduism, particularly in their respective mudras. For example, in the Jain caves at Ellora Caves, extensive carvings show dancing Indra next to the images of in a manner similar to Shiva Nataraja. The similarities in the dance iconography suggests that there may be a link between ancient Indra and Shiva.
Development
A few texts such as Atharvashiras Upanishad mention Rudra, and assert all gods are Rudra, everyone and everything is Rudra, and Rudra is the principle found in all things, their highest goal, the innermost essence of all reality that is visible or invisible. The Kaivalya Upanishad similarly, states Paul Deussen – a German Indologist and professor of philosophy, describes the self-realized man as who "feels himself only as the one divine essence that lives in all", who feels identity of his and everyone's consciousness with Shiva (highest Atman), who has found this highest Atman within, in the depths of his heart.
Rudra's evolution from a minor Vedic deity to a supreme being is first evidenced in the Shvetashvatara Upanishad (400–200 BCE), according to Gavin Flood, presenting the earliest seeds of theistic devotion to Rudra-Shiva. Here Rudra-Shiva is identified as the creator of the cosmos and liberator of Selfs from the birth-rebirth cycle. The Svetasvatara Upanishad set the tone for early Shaivite thought, especially in chapter 3 verse 2 where Shiva is equated with Brahman: "Rudra is truly one; for the knowers of Brahman do not admit the existence of a second".
Shaiva devotees and ascetics are mentioned in Patanjali's Mahābhāṣya (2nd-century BCE) and in the Mahabharata.[ For date of Mahabhasya see: .]
The earliest iconic artworks of Shiva may be from Gandhara and northwest parts of ancient India. There is some uncertainty as the artwork that has survived is damaged and they show some overlap with meditative Buddha-related artwork, but the presence of Shiva's trident and phallic symbolism in this art suggests it was likely Shiva. Numismatics research suggests that numerous coins of the ancient Kushan Empire (30–375 CE) that have survived, were images of a god who is probably Shiva. The Shiva in Kushan coins is referred to as Oesho of unclear etymology and origins, but the simultaneous presence of Indra and Shiva in the Kushan era artwork suggest that they were revered deities by the start of the Kushan Empire.
The Shaiva Upanishads are a group of 14 minor Upanishads of Hinduism variously dated from the last centuries of the 1st millennium BCE through the 17th century. These extol Shiva as the metaphysical unchanging reality Brahman and the Atman (Self), and include sections about rites and symbolisms related to Shiva.
The Shaiva Puranas, particularly the Shiva Purana and the Linga Purana, present the various aspects of Shiva, mythologies, cosmology and pilgrimage ( Tirtha) associated with him. The Shiva-related Tantra literature, composed between the 8th and 11th centuries, are regarded in devotional dualistic Shaivism as Sruti. Dualistic Shaiva Agamas which consider Self within each living being and Shiva as two separate realities (dualism, dvaita), are the foundational texts for Shaiva Siddhanta. Other Shaiva Agamas teach that these are one reality (monism, advaita), and that Shiva is the Self, the perfection and truth within each living being.[; , Quote (page 13): "Some agamas argue a monist metaphysics, while others are decidedly dualist. Some claim ritual is the most efficacious means of religious attainment, while others assert that knowledge is more important".] In Shiva related sub-traditions, there are ten dualistic Agama texts, eighteen qualified monism-cum-dualism Agama texts and sixty-four monism Agama texts.[Mark Dyczkowski (1989), The Canon of the Śaivāgama, Motilal Banarsidass, , pl. 43–44][JS Vasugupta (2012), Śiva Sūtras, Motilal Banarsidass, , pp. 252, 259]
Shiva-related literature developed extensively across India in the 1st millennium CE and through the 13th century, particularly in Kashmir and Tamil Shaiva traditions. Shaivism gained immense popularity in Tamilakam as early as the 7th century CE, with poets such as Appar and Sambandar composing rich poetry that is replete with present features associated with the deity, such as his tandava dance, the mulavam (dumru), the aspect of holding fire, and restraining the proud flow of the Ganga upon his braid.
Position within Hinduism
Shaivism
Shaivism is one of the four major sects of Hinduism, the others being Vaishnavism, Shaktism and the Smarta Tradition. Followers of Shaivism, called "Shaivas", revere Shiva as the Supreme Being. Shaivas believe that Shiva is All and in all, the creator, preserver, destroyer, revealer and concealer of all that is. He is not only the creator in Shaivism, but he is also the creation that results from him, he is everything and everywhere. Shiva is the primal Self, the pure consciousness and Brahman in the Shaiva traditions. Shiva is also part of 'Om' (ॐ) as a 'U' (उ).
The Shaivism theology is broadly grouped into two: the popular theology influenced by Shiva-Rudra in the Vedas, Epics and the Puranas; and the esoteric theology influenced by the Shiva and Shakti-related Tantra texts. The Vedic-Brahmanic Shiva theology includes both monist ( Advaita) and devotional traditions ( Dvaita), such as Tamil Shaiva Siddhanta and Lingayatism. Shiva temples feature items such as linga, Shiva-Parvati iconography, bull Nandi within the premises, and relief artwork showing aspects of Shiva.
The Tantra Shiva ( "शिव") tradition ignored the mythologies and Puranas related to Shiva, and depending on the sub-school developed a variety of practices. For example, historical records suggest the tantric (literally, the 'skull-men') co-existed with and shared many Vajrayana Buddhist rituals, engaged in esoteric practices that revered Shiva and Shakti wearing skulls, begged with empty skulls, and sometimes used meat as a part of ritual.[David Lawrence, Kashmiri Shaiva Philosophy , University of Manitoba, Canada, IEP, Section 1(d)]
Vaishnavism
The Vaishnava (Vishnu-oriented) literature acknowledges and discusses Shiva. Like Shaiva literature that presents Shiva as supreme, the Vaishnava literature presents Vishnu as supreme. However, both traditions are pluralistic and revere both Shiva and Vishnu (along with Devi), their texts do not show exclusivism, and Vaishnava texts such as the Bhagavata Purana while praising Krishna as the Ultimate Reality, also present Shiva and Shakti as a personalised form an equivalent to the same Ultimate Reality.[Edwin Bryant (2003), Krishna: The Beautiful Legend of God: Srimad Bhagavata Purana, Penguin, , pp. 10–12, Quote: "(...) accept and indeed extol the transcendent and absolute nature of the other, and of the Goddess Devi too"][Ludo Rocher (1986), The Puranas, Otto Harrassowitz Verlag, , p. 23 with footnotes][EO James (1997), The Tree of Life, Brill Academic, , pp. 150–153] The texts of Shaivism tradition similarly praise Vishnu. The Skanda Purana, for example, states:
Both traditions include legends about who is superior, about Shiva paying homage to Vishnu, and Vishnu paying homage to Shiva. However, in texts and artwork of either tradition, the mutual salutes are symbolism for complementarity.
Shaktism
The goddess-oriented Shakti tradition of Hinduism is based on the premise that the Supreme Principle and the Ultimate Reality called Brahman is female (Devi), but it treats the male as her equal and complementary partner. This partner is Shiva.
The earliest evidence of the tradition of reverence for the feminine with Rudra-Shiva context, is found in the Hindu scripture Rigveda, in a hymn called the Devi Sukta.
The Devi Upanishad in its explanation of the theology of Shaktism, mentions and praises Shiva such as in its verse 19. Shiva, along with Vishnu, is a revered god in the Devi Mahatmya, a text of Shaktism considered by the tradition to be as important as the Bhagavad Gita.[, Quote: "In the Devi Mahatmya, it is quite clear that Durga is an independent deity, great in her own right, and only loosely associated with any of the great male deities. And if any one of the great gods can be said to be her closest associate, it is Visnu rather than Siva".] The Ardhanarisvara concept co-mingles god Shiva and goddess Shakti by presenting an icon that is half-man and half woman, a representation and theme of union found in many Hindu texts and temples.
Smarta tradition
In the Smarta tradition of Hinduism, Shiva is a part of its Panchayatana puja.
Philosophically, the Smarta tradition emphasises that all idols (murti) are icons to help focus on and visualise aspects of Brahman, rather than distinct beings. The ultimate goal in this practice is to transition past the use of icons, recognise the Absolute symbolised by the icons,
Yoga
Shiva is considered the Great Yogi who is totally absorbed in himself – the transcendental reality. He is the Lord of , and the teacher of Yoga to sages. As Shiva Dakshinamurthi, states Stella Kramrisch, he is the supreme guru who "teaches in silence the oneness of one's innermost self ( atman) with the ultimate reality ( Brahman)." Shiva is also an archetype for samhara () or dissolution which includes transcendence of human misery by the dissolution of maya, which is why Shiva is associated with Yoga.
Other famed Shiva-related texts influenced Hatha Yoga, integrated monistic ( Advaita Vedanta) ideas with Yoga philosophy and inspired the theoretical development of Indian classical dance. These include the Shiva Sutras, the Shiva Samhita, and those by the scholars of Kashmir Shaivism such as the 10th-century scholar Abhinavagupta.[a ;]
b [a ;]
b
Trimurti
The Trimurti is a concept in Hinduism in which the cosmic functions of creation, maintenance, and destruction are personified by the forms of Brahma the creator, Vishnu the maintainer or preserver and Shiva the destroyer or transformer.[For quotation defining the Trimurti see Matchett, Freda. "The ", in: ][;]
These three deities have been called "the Hindu triad"[For definition of Trimurti as "the unified form" of Brahmā, and Śiva and use of the phrase "the Hindu triad" see: .] or the "Great Triple deity".[For the term "Great Trinity" in relation to the Trimurti see: .] However, the ancient and medieval texts of Hinduism feature many triads of gods and goddesses, some of which do not include Shiva.[The Trimurti idea of Hinduism, states Jan Gonda, "seems to have developed from ancient cosmological and ritualistic speculations about the triple character of an individual god, in the first place of Agni, whose births are three or threefold, and who is threefold light, has three bodies and three stations". See: ; Other trinities, beyond the more common "Brahma, Vishnu, Shiva", mentioned in ancient and medieval Hindu texts include: "Indra, Vishnu, Brahmanaspati", "Agni, Indra, Surya", "Agni, Vayu, Aditya", "Mahalakshmi, Mahasarasvati, and Mahakali", and others. See: a David White (2006), Kiss of the Yogini, University of Chicago Press, , pp. 4, 29]
b
Attributes
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Third eye: Shiva is often depicted with a third eye, with which he burned Desire () to ashes,
[For Shiva as depicted with a third eye, and mention of the story of the destruction of Kama with it, see: .] called "Tryambakam" (Sanskrit: त्र्यम्बकम्), which occurs in many scriptural sources.[For a review of 4 theories about the meaning of tryambaka, see: .] In classical Sanskrit, the word ambaka denotes "an eye", and in the Mahabharata, Shiva is depicted as three-eyed, so this name is sometimes translated as "having three eyes".[For usage of the word ambaka in classical Sanskrit and connection to the Mahabharata depiction, see: .] However, in Vedic Sanskrit, the word or means "mother", and this early meaning of the word is the basis for the translation "three mothers".[For translation of Tryambakam as "having three mother eyes" and as an epithet of Rudra, see: .][For Vedic Sanskrit meaning Lord has three mother eyes which symbolize eyes are the Sun, Moon and Fire.] These three mother-goddesses who are collectively called the . Other related translations have been based on the idea that the name actually refers to the oblations given to Rudra, which according to some traditions were shared with the goddess .[For the variant, see: .]
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Crescent moon: Shiva bears on his head the crescent moon.
[For the moon on the forehead see: .] The epithet (Sanskrit: चन्द्रशेखर "Having the moon as his crest" – chandra = "moon"; = "crest, crown")[For ] as crest or crown, see: .[For as an iconographic form, see: .][For translation "Having the moon as his crest" see: .] refers to this feature. The placement of the moon on his head as a standard iconographic feature dates to the period when Rudra rose to prominence and became the major deity Rudra-Shiva.[For the moon iconography as marking the rise of Rudra-Shiva, see: .] The origin of this linkage may be due to the identification of the moon with Soma, and there is a hymn in the Rig Veda where Soma and Rudra are jointly implored, and in later literature, Soma and Rudra came to be identified with one another, as were Soma and the moon.[For discussion of the linkages between Soma, Moon, and Rudra, and citation to RV 7.74, see: .]
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Ashes: Shiva iconography shows his body covered with ashes (bhasma, vibhuti).
[This smearing of cremation ashes emerged into a practice of some Tantra-oriented ascetics, where they would also offer meat, alcohol and sexual fluids to Bhairava (a form of Shiva), and these groups were probably not of Brahmanism origin. These ascetics are mentioned in the ancient Pali Canon of Thervada Buddhism. See: ] The ashes represent a reminder that all of material existence is impermanent, comes to an end becoming ash, and the pursuit of eternal Self and spiritual liberation is important.[Antonio Rigopoulos (2013), Brill's Encyclopedia of Hinduism, Volume 5, Brill Academic, , pp. 182–183]
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Matted hair: Shiva's distinctive hair style is noted in the epithets , "the one with matted hair", and Kapardin, "endowed with matted hair"
[For translation of Kapardin as "Endowed with matted hair" see: .] or "wearing his hair wound in a braid in a shell-like (kaparda) fashion".[.] A kaparda is a cowrie shell, or a braid of hair in the form of a shell, or, more generally, hair that is shaggy or curly.[For Kapardin as a name of Shiva, and description of the kaparda hair style, see, .]
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Blue throat: The epithet (Sanskrit नीलकण्ठ; nīla = "blue", = "throat").
[See: name #93 in .] Since Shiva drank the Halahala poison churned up from the Samudra manthan to eliminate its destructive capacity. Shocked by his act, Parvati squeezed his neck and stopped it in his neck to prevent it from spreading all over the universe, supposed to be in Shiva's stomach. However the poison was so potent that it changed the color of his neck to blue.[For Shiva drinking the poison churned from the world ocean see: ] This attribute indicates that one can become Shiva by swallowing the worldly poisons in terms of abuses and insults with equanimity while blessing those who give them.
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Meditating yogi: his iconography often shows him in a Yoga pose, meditating, sometimes on a symbolic Himalayan Mount Kailasa as the Lord of Yoga.
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Sacred Ganga: The epithet Gangadhara, "Bearer of the river Ganga" (Ganges). The Ganga flows from the matted hair of Shiva.
[For alternate stories about this feature, and use of the name see: .][For description of the form, see: .] The (Ganga), one of the major rivers of the country, is said to have made her abode in Shiva's hair.[For Shiva supporting upon his head, see: .]
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Tiger skin: Shiva is often shown seated upon a tiger skin.
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Vasuki: Shiva is often shown garlanded with the serpent Vasuki. Vasuki is the second Nagaraja (the first being Vishnu's mount, Shesha). According to a legend, Vasuki was blessed by Shiva and worn by him as an ornament after the Samudra Manthana.
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Trident: Shiva typically carries a trident called Trishula. The trident is a weapon or a symbol in different Hindu texts. As a symbol, the Trishul represents Shiva's three aspects of "creator, preserver and destroyer", or alternatively it represents the equilibrium of three guṇas of sattva, rajas and tamas.
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Drum: A small drum shaped like an hourglass is known as a damaru.
[For definition and shape, see: .] This is one of the attributes of Shiva in his famous dancing representation known as Nataraja. A specific hand gesture (mudra) called (Sanskrit for "-hand") is used to hold the drum. This drum is particularly used as an emblem by members of the sect.[For use by , see: .]
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Axe ( Parashu) and Deer are held in Shiva's hands in Odisha & south Indian icons.
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Rosary beads: he is garlanded with or carries a string of rosary beads in his right hand, typically made of Rudraksha. This symbolises grace, mendicant life and meditation.
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: Nandī, (Sanskrit: (nandin)), is the name of the bull that serves as Shiva's mount.
[For a review of issues related to the evolution of the bull (Nandin) as Shiva's mount, see: .][For spelling of alternate proper names and Nandin see: .] Shiva's association with cattle is reflected in his name , or Pashupati (Sanskrit: पशुपति), translated by Sharma as "lord of cattle"
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Mount : Kailasa in the Himalayas is his traditional abode.
[For the name Kailāsagirivāsī ( Sanskrit कैलासिगिरवासी), "With his abode on Mount Kailāsa", as a name appearing in the Shiva Sahasranama, see: .] In Hindu mythology, Mount is conceived as resembling a Linga, representing the center of the universe.[For identification of Mount as the central linga, see: , p. 62.]
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: The Gana are attendants of Shiva and live in Kailash. They are often referred to as the bhutaganas, or ghostly hosts, on account of their nature. Generally benign, except when their lord is transgressed against, they are often invoked to intercede with the lord on behalf of the devotee. His son Ganesha was chosen as their leader by Shiva, hence Ganesha's title or , "lord of the ".
[Dictionary of Hindu Lore and Legend () by Anna L. Dallapiccola]
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Varanasi: Varanasi (Benares) is considered to be the city specially loved by Shiva, and is one of the holiest places of pilgrimage in India. It is referred to, in religious contexts, as Kashi.
Forms and depictions
Shiva is often depicted as embodying attributes of ambiguity and paradox. His depictions are marked by the opposing themes including fierceness and innocence. This duality can be seen in the diverse epithets attributed to him and the rich tapestry of narratives that delineate his persona within Hindu mythology.[For quotation "Shiva is a god of ambiguity and paradox" and overview of conflicting attributes see: ]
Destroyer and Benefactor
In Yajurveda, two contrary sets of attributes for both malignant or terrifying (Sanskrit: ) and benign or auspicious (Sanskrit: ) forms can be found, leading Chakravarti to conclude that "all the basic elements which created the complex Rudra-Śiva sect of later ages are to be found here".[For quotation regarding Yajur Veda as containing contrary sets of attributes, and marking point for emergence of all basic elements of later sect forms, see: , p. 7.] In the Mahabharata, Shiva is depicted as "the standard of invincibility, might, and terror", as well as a figure of honour, delight, and brilliance.[For summary of Shiva's contrasting depictions in the Mahabharata, see: .]
The duality of Shiva's fearful and auspicious attributes appears in contrasted names. The name Rudra reflects Shiva's fearsome aspects. According to traditional etymologies, the Sanskrit name Rudra is derived from the root rud-, which means "to cry, howl".[For rud- meaning "cry, howl" as a traditional etymology see: .] Stella Kramrisch notes a different etymology connected with the adjectival form raudra, which means "wild, of rudra nature", and translates the name Rudra as "the wild one" or "the fierce god".[Citation to M. Mayrhofer, Concise Etymological Sanskrit Dictionary, s.v. "rudra", is provided in: , p. 5.] R. K. Sharma follows this alternate etymology and translates the name as "terrible". Hara is an important name that occurs three times in the Anushasanaparvan version of the Shiva sahasranama, where it is translated in different ways each time it occurs, following a commentorial tradition of not repeating an interpretation. Sharma translates the three as "one who captivates", "one who consolidates", and "one who destroys". Kramrisch translates it as "the ravisher". Another of Shiva's fearsome forms is as "time" and "great time", which ultimately destroys all things. The name appears in the Shiva Sahasranama, where it is translated by Ram Karan Sharma as "(the Supreme Lord of) Time". Bhairava "terrible" or "frightful" is a fierce form associated with annihilation. In contrast, the name , "beneficent" or "conferring happiness" reflects his benign form. This name was adopted by the great Vedanta philosopher Adi Shankara (), who is also known as Shankaracharya. The name (Sanskrit: शम्भु swam-on its own; bhu-burn/shine) "self-shining/ shining on its own", also reflects this benign aspect.
Ascetic and householder
Shiva is depicted as both an ascetic yogi and as a householder (grihasta), roles which have been traditionally mutually exclusive in Hindu society.[For the contrast between ascetic and householder depictions, see: ] When depicted as a yogi, he may be shown sitting and meditating.[For Shiva's representation as a yogi, see: .] His epithet Mahāyogi ("the great Yogi: = "great", Yogi = "one who practices Yoga") refers to his association with yoga.[For name Mahāyogi and associations with yoga, see, .] While Vedic religion was conceived mainly in terms of sacrifice, it was during the Epic period that the concepts of tapas, yoga, and asceticism became more important, and the depiction of Shiva as an ascetic sitting in philosophical isolation reflects these later concepts.[For the ascetic yogin form as reflecting Epic period influences, see: .]
As a family man and householder, he has a wife, Parvati, and two sons, Ganesha and Kartikeya. His epithet ("The husband of ") refers to this idea, and Sharma notes that two other variants of this name that mean the same thing, and , also appear in the sahasranama.[For , and as names in the Shiva Sahasranama literature, see: .] in epic literature is known by many names, including the benign .[For as the oldest name, and variants including , see: .][For identified as the wife of Shiva, see: ] She is identified with Devi, the Divine Mother; Shakti (divine energy) as well as goddesses like Tripura Sundari, Durga, Kali, Kamakshi and Minakshi. The consorts of Shiva are the source of his creative energy. They represent the dynamic extension of Shiva onto this universe.[Search for Meaning By Antonio R. Gualtieri] His son Ganesha is worshipped throughout India and Nepal as the Remover of Obstacles, Lord of Beginnings and Lord of Obstacles. Kartikeya is worshipped in South India (especially in Tamil Nadu, Kerala and Karnataka) by the names Subrahmanya, Subrahmanyan, Shanmughan, Swaminathan and Murugan, and in North India by the names Skanda, Kumara, or Karttikeya.[For regional name variants of Karttikeya see: .]
Some regional deities are also identified as Shiva's children. As one story goes, Shiva is enticed by the beauty and charm of Mohini, Vishnu's female avatar, and procreates with her. As a result of this union, Shasta – identified with regional deities Ayyappan and Aiyanar – is born.[See Mohini#Relationship with Shiva for details] In outskirts of Ernakulam in Kerala, a deity named Vishnumaya is stated to be offspring of Shiva and invoked in local exorcism rites, but this deity is not traceable in Hindu pantheon and is possibly a local tradition with "vaguely Chinese" style rituals, states Saletore.
Iconographic forms
The depiction of Shiva as Nataraja (Sanskrit नटराज; Naṭarāja) is a form ( ) of Shiva as "Lord of Dance".[For description of the nataraja form see: .][For interpretation of the ] form see: . The names Nartaka ("dancer") and Nityanarta ("eternal dancer") appear in the Shiva Sahasranama.[For names Nartaka ( Sanskrit नर्तक) and Nityanarta (Sanskrit नित्यनर्त) as names of Shiva, see: .] His association with dance and also with music is prominent in the Puranas period.[For prominence of these associations in puranic times, see: .] In addition to the specific iconographic form known as Nataraja, various other types of dancing forms (Sanskrit: ) are found in all parts of India, with many well-defined varieties in Tamil Nadu in particular.[For popularity of the ] and prevalence in South India, see: . The two most common forms of the dance are the Tandava, which later came to denote the powerful and masculine dance as Kala-Mahakala associated with the destruction of the world. When it requires the world or universe to be destroyed, Shiva does it by the Tandava, and Lasya, which is graceful and delicate and expresses emotions on a gentle level and is considered the feminine dance attributed to the goddess Parvati.
Dakshinamurthy (Sanskrit दक्षिणामूर्ति; , "facing south form")[For iconographic description of the form, see: .] represents Shiva in his aspect as a teacher of yoga, music, and wisdom and giving exposition on the shastras.[For description of the form as representing teaching functions, see: .] Dakshinamurti is depicted as a figure seated upon a deer-throne surrounded by sages receiving instruction.[For the deer-throne and the audience of sages as , see: .] Dakshinamurti's depiction in Indian art is mostly restricted to Tamil Nadu.[For characterization of as a mostly south Indian form, see: .]
Bhikshatana (Sanskrit भिक्षाटन; Bhikṣāṭana, "wandering about for alms, mendicancy"
Tripurantaka (Sanskrit त्रिपुरांतक; , "ender of Tripura") is associated with his destruction of the three cities (Tripura) of the .[For evolution of this story from early sources to the epic period, when it was used to enhance Shiva's increasing influence, see: Chakravarti, p. 46.] He is depicted with four arms, the upper pair holding an axe and a deer, and the lower pair wielding a bow and arrow.
Ardhanarishvara (Sanskrit: अर्धनारीश्वर; Ardhanārīśvara, "the lord who is half woman"[Goldberg specifically rejects the translation by Frederique Marglin (1989) as "half-man, half-woman", and instead adopts the translation by Marglin as "the lord who is half woman" as given in Marglin (1989, 216). .]) is conjunct form of Shiva with Parvati. Adhanarishvara is depicted with one half of the body as male and the other half as female. Ardhanarishvara represents the synthesis of masculine and feminine energies of the universe (Purusha and Prakriti) and illustrates how Shakti, the female principle of God, is inseparable from (or the same as, according to some interpretations) Shiva, the male principle of God, and vice versa.
Kalyanasundara-murti (Sanskrit कल्याणसुन्दर-मूर्ति, literally "icon of beautiful marriage") is the depiction of Shiva's marriage to Parvati. The divine couple are often depicted performing the panigrahana (Sanskrit "accepting the hand") ritual from traditional Hindu wedding ceremonies.
Somaskanda is the depiction of Shiva, Parvati, and their son Skanda (Kartikeya), popular during the Pallava dynasty Dynasty in southern India.
Astamurti (Sanskrit: अष्टमूर्ति) is an iconographic depiction of Shiva as composed of eight attributes: Rudra, Śarva, Paśupati, Ugra, Aśani, Bhava, Mahādeva, and Īśāna—some of which overlap with Pañcānana, described below.
Pañcānana (Sanskrit: पञ्चानन), also called the pañcabrahma, is a form of Shiva depicting him as having five faces which correspond to his five divine activities ( pañcakṛtya): creation ( sṛṣṭi), preservation ( sthithi), destruction ( saṃhāra), concealing grace ( tirobhāva), and revealing grace ( anugraha). Five is a sacred number for Shiva.[For five as a sacred number, see: .] One of his most important mantras has five syllables ().[It is first encountered in an almost identical form in the Rudram. For the five syllable mantra see: .]
Shiva's body is said to consist of five mantras, called the .[For discussion of these five forms and a table summarizing the associations of these five mantras see: .] As forms of God, each of these have their own names and distinct iconography:[For distinct iconography, see .] These are represented as the five faces of Shiva and are associated in various texts with the five elements, the five senses, the five organs of perception, and the five organs of action.[For association with the five faces and other groups of five, see: .][For the epithets and , both of which mean "five faces", as epithets of , see: , middle column.] Doctrinal differences and, possibly, errors in transmission, have resulted in some differences between texts in details of how these five forms are linked with various attributes.[For variation in attributions among texts, see: .] The overall meaning of these associations is summarised by Stella Kramrisch,
According to the Pañcabrahma Upanishad:
In the hymn of Manikkavacakar's Thiruvasagam, he testifies that Nataraja Temple, Chidambaram had, by the pre-Chola period, an abstract or 'cosmic' symbolism linked to Pancha Bhoota including ether. Nataraja is a significant visual interpretation of Brahman and a dance posture of Shiva.
Lingam
The Linga Purana states, "Shiva is signless, without color, taste, smell, that is beyond word or touch, without quality, motionless and changeless".
The Shvetashvatara Upanishad states one of the three significations, the primary one, of Lingam as "Purusha", Brahman, where says the linga as "sign", a mark that provides the existence of Brahman, thus the original meaning as "sign". Furthermore, it says "Shiva, the Supreme Lord, has no liūga", liuga ( ) meaning Shiva is transcendent, beyond any characteristic and, specifically the sign of gender.
Apart from anthropomorphic images of Shiva, he is also represented in aniconic form of a lingam. These are depicted in various designs. One common form is the shape of a vertical rounded column in the centre of a lipped, disk-shaped object, the yoni, symbolism for the goddess Shakti.[ Lingam: Hindu symbol Encyclopædia Britannica] In Shiva temples, the linga is typically present in its sanctum sanctorum and is the focus of votary offerings such as milk, water, flower petals, fruit, fresh leaves, and rice.[Monier Williams (1899), Sanskrit to English Dictionary, लिङ्ग, p. 901]
Some scholars, such as Wendy Doniger, view linga as merely a phallic symbol,
The worship of the lingam originated from the famous hymn in the Atharva-Veda Samhitâ sung in praise of the Yupa-Stambha, the sacrificial post. In that hymn, a description is found of the beginningless and endless Stambha or Skambha, and it is shown that the said Skambha is put in place of the eternal Brahman. Just as the Yajna (sacrificial) fire, its smoke, ashes, and flames, the Soma plant, and the ox that used to carry on its back the wood for the Vedic sacrifice gave place to the conceptions of the brightness of Shiva's body, his tawny matted hair, his blue throat, and the riding on the bull of the Shiva, the Yupa-Skambha gave place in time to the Shiva-Linga.
The oldest known archaeological linga as an icon of Shiva is the Gudimallam lingam from 3rd-century BCE.
Avatars
Puranas contain occasional references to "ansh" – literally 'portion, or avatars of Shiva', but the idea of Shiva avatars is not universally accepted in Shaivism.[James Lochtefeld (2002), "Shiva" in The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism, Vol. 2: N–Z, Rosen Publishing, , p. 635][Sri Ramakrishna Math (1985) "Hanuman Chalisa" p. 5] The Bhagavata Purana and the Vishnu Purana claim sage Durvasa to be a portion of Shiva.
Temple
Festivals
There is a Shivaratri in every lunar month on its 13th night/14th day,
Maha Shivaratri is a major Hindu festival, but one that is solemn and theologically marks a remembrance of "overcoming darkness and ignorance" in life and the world, and meditation about the polarities of existence, of Shiva and a devotion to humankind.
Another major festival involving Shiva worship is Kartik Purnima, commemorating Tripurantaka over the three demons known as Tripurasura. Across India, various Shiva temples are illuminated throughout the night. Shiva icons are carried in procession in some places.
Thiruvathira is a festival observed in Kerala dedicated to Shiva. It is believed that on this day, Parvati met Shiva after her long penance and Shiva took her as his wife.
Regional festivals dedicated to Shiva include the Chithirai festival in Madurai around April/May, one of the largest festivals in South India, celebrating the wedding of Minakshi (Parvati) and Shiva. The festival is one where both the Vaishnava and Shaiva communities join the celebrations, because Vishnu gives away his sister Minakshi in marriage to Shiva.
Some Shaktism-related festivals revere Shiva along with the goddess considered primary and Supreme. These include festivals dedicated to Annapurna such as Annakuta and those related to Durga. In Himalayas such as Nepal, as well as in northern, central and western India, the festival of Teej is celebrated by girls and women in the monsoon season, in honour of goddess Parvati, with group singing, dancing and by offering prayers in Parvati-Shiva temples.
The ascetic, Vedic and Tantric sub-traditions related to Shiva, such as those that became ascetic warriors during the Islamic rule period of India,[David N. Lorenzen (1978), Warrior Ascetics in Indian History , Journal of the American Oriental Society, 98(1): 61–75][William Pinch (2012), Warrior Ascetics and Indian Empires, Cambridge University Press, ] celebrate the Kumbha Mela festival. This festival cycles every 12 years, in four pilgrimage sites within India, with the event moving to the next site after a gap of three years. The biggest is in Prayagraj (renamed Allahabad during the Mughal rule era), where millions of Hindus of different traditions gather at the confluence of rivers Ganges and Yamuna. In the Hindu tradition, the Shiva-linked ascetic warriors ( Nagas) get the honour of starting the event by entering the Sangam first for bathing and prayers.
In Pakistan, major Shivaratri celebration occurs at the Umarkot Shiv Mandir in the Umerkot District. The three-day Shivarathri celebration at the temple is attended by around 250,000 people.
Beyond the Indian subcontinent and Hinduism
Indonesia
In Indonesian Shaivism the popular name for Shiva has been Batara Guru, which is derived from Sanskrit Bhattāraka which means "noble lord". He is conceptualised as a kind spiritual teacher, the first of all in Indonesian Hindu texts, mirroring the Dakshinamurti aspect of Shiva in the Indian subcontinent. However, the Batara Guru has more aspects than the Indian Shiva, as the Indonesian Hindus blended their spirits and heroes with him. Batara Guru's wife in Southeast Asia is the same Hindu deity Durga, who has been popular since ancient times, and she too has a complex character with benevolent and fierce manifestations, each visualised with different names such as Uma, Sri, Kali and others.[Hariani Santiko (1997), The Goddess Durgā in the East-Javanese Period , Asian Folklore Studies, Vol. 56, No. 2, pp. 209–226] In contrast to Hindu religious texts, whether Vedas or Puranas, in wayang books, Batara Guru is the king of the gods who regulates and creates the world system. In the classic book that is used as a reference for the puppeteers, it is said that Sanghyang Manikmaya or Batara Guru was created from a sparkling light by Sang Hyang Tunggal, along with the blackish light which is the origin of Ismaya.
The Indonesian Hindu texts present the same philosophical diversity of Shaivite traditions found in the Indian subcontinent. However, among the texts that have survived into the contemporary era, the more common are of those of Shaiva Siddhanta (locally also called Siwa Siddhanta, Sridanta).
During the pre-Islamic period on the island of Java, Shaivism and Buddhism were considered very close and allied religions, though not identical religions. The medieval-era Indonesian literature equates Buddha with Siwa (Shiva) and Janardana (Vishnu).[J.L. Moens (1974), Het Buddhisme Java en Sumatra in Zijn laatste boeiperiods, T.B.G., pp. 522–539, 550; ] This tradition continues in predominantly Hindu Bali Indonesia in the modern era, where Buddha is considered the younger brother of Shiva.
Central Asia
The worship of Shiva became popular in Central Asia through the influence of the Hephthalite Empire[P. 377 Classical Hinduism By Mariasusai Dhavamony] and Kushan Empire. Shaivism was also popular in Sogdia and the Kingdom of Yutian as found from the wall painting from Penjikent on the river Zervashan.[Puri, P. 133 Buddhism in Central Asia] In this depiction, Shiva is portrayed with a sacred halo and a sacred thread ( Yajnopavita).
Sikhism
The Japuji Sahib of the Guru Granth Sahib says: "The Guru is Shiva, the Guru is Vishnu and Brahma; the Guru is Paarvati and Lakhshmi."
Buddhism
Shiva is mentioned in the Buddhist Tantras and worshipped as the fierce deity Mahākāla in Vajrayana, Chinese Esoteric, and Tibetan Buddhism.
In Mahayana Buddhism, Shiva is depicted as Maheshvara, a deva living in Akanishta Devaloka. In Theravada Buddhism, Shiva is depicted as Ishana, a deva residing in the 6th heaven of Kamadhatu along with Sakra Indra. In Vajrayana Buddhism, Shiva is depicted as Mahakala, a dharma protecting Bodhisattva. In most forms of Buddhism, the position of Shiva is lesser than that of Mahabrahma or Sakra Indra. In Mahayana Buddhist texts, Shiva (Maheshvara) becomes a buddha called Bhasmeshvara Buddha ("Buddha of ashes").
In China and Taiwan, Shiva, better known there as Maheśvara (Chinese language: 大自在天; pinyin: Dàzìzàitiān; or Chinese language: 摩醯首羅天 pinyin: Móxīshǒuluótiān) is considered one of the Twenty Devas (Chinese language: 二十諸天, pinyin: Èrshí Zhūtiān) or the Twenty-Four Devas (Chinese language: 二十四諸天, pinyin: Èrshísì zhūtiān) who are a group of that manifest to protect the Buddhist dharma.
Daikokuten, one of the Seven Lucky Gods in Japan, is considered to be evolved from Shiva. The god enjoys an exalted position as a household deity in Japan and is worshipped as the god of wealth and fortune.
In popular culture
In contemporary culture, Shiva is depicted in art, films, and books. He has been referred to as "the god of cool things"
A 1990s television series of DD National titled Om Namah Shivay was also based on legends of Shiva.
See also
Notes
Sources
Primary
Secondary
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(Set of four volumes). Parimal Sanskrit Series No. 45; 2003 reprint: .
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(Third edition). The version provided by Chidbhavananda is from chapter 17 of the Anuśāsana Parva of the Mahābharata.
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David Frawley. 2015. Shiva: the lord of yoga. Twin Lakes, WI : Lotus Press.
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Ellen Goldberg (2025). 079145326X, State University of New York Press. 079145326X
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T. H. Griffith (1973). 812080046X, Motilal Banarsidass. 812080046X
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This work compares eight versions of the Śivasahasranāmāstotra with comparative analysis and Śivasahasranāmākoṣa (A Dictionary of Names). The text of the eight versions is given in Sanskrit.
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First Indian Edition: Munshiram Manoharlal, 2003, .
Further reading
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; original text, transliteration, English translation and notes.
External links
