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The Principate was the form of imperial government of the Roman Empire from the beginning of the reign of Augustus in 27 BC to the end of the Crisis of the Third Century in AD 284, after which it evolved into the Dominate.Loewenstein, K. (1973). The Governance of Rome (p. 370), . Springer Science & Business Media.Goldsworthy, A. (2010). How Rome Fell Death of a Superpower. (p. 443). Yale Univ Pr.
"From Diocleitan onwards, emperors to be called dominus, which meant lord or master"
Under the Republic, the princeps senatus, traditionally the oldest or most honored member of the Senate, had the right to be heard first on any debate.O Seyffeert, A Dictionary of Classical Antiquities (London 1891) p. 516 Scipio Aemilianus and Scipionic circle had fostered the (quasi-Platonic) idea that authority should be invested in the worthiest citizen ( princeps), who would beneficently guide his peers, an ideal of the patriot statesman later taken up by Cicero.H J Rose, A Handbook of Latin Literature (Methuen 1967) pp. 99, 235
See for a general overview of Diocletian reforms at the provincial, political, and economic levels, which differed from the principate
Although dynastic pretenses crept in from the start, formalizing this in a monarchic style remained politically perilous;J Burrow, A History of Histories (Penguin 2007) pp. 124–125 and Octavian was undoubtedly correct to work through established Republican forms to consolidate his power.J Boardman ed. The Oxford History of the Classical World (1991) p. 538 He began with the powers of a Roman consul, combined with those of a Tribune of the plebs; later added the role of the Roman censor and finally became pontifex maximus as well.D Wormersley ed, Abridged Decline and Fall (Penguin 2005) pp. 70–71Cassius, D. (1987). The Roman history : the reign of Augustus (I. Scott-Kilvert, Trans.; pp. 140–142). Penguin Books.
In addition to these legal powers, the principate was also characterized by the emperor being the "ultimate source of patronage".Goldsworthy, A. (2010). How Rome Fell Death of a Superpower. (pp. 45–46). Yale Univ Pr. This was due in part to their immense wealth, being named Pater Patriae or "father of the country "Adrian Keith Goldsworthy. (2014). Augustus : first emperor of Rome (pp. 395–396). Yale University Press. , and by having a monopoly on political power. To this, emperors would satisfy the senatorial class with appointments to the high offices and to the provinces, effectively removing threats to their power in Rome. As such, emperors went to great lengths to control and satisfy the needs of the army (their ultimate source of power) by proving gracious Donativum to the troops upon their ascension and for special events; limiting senatorial control over the legions by way of controlling military provinces through "extraordinary military commands"; and using oaths to bind the military to the emperor personally.Bleicken, J. (2015). Augustus (A. Bell, Trans.; pp. 496–503). Penguin UK.
See for emperors monopoly on military power
See for emperors justification for holding "extraordinary military command was still needed" and relationship between imperial and senatorial provinces.
Tiberius, like Augustus, also acquired his powers piecemeal, and was proud to emphasize his place as first citizen: "a good and healthful princeps, whom you have invested with such great discretionary power, ought to be the servant of the Senate, and often of the whole citizen body".Gaius Tranquillus Suetonius. (2006). The Twelve Caesars (p. 121). Penguin Thereafter, however, the role of princeps became more institutionalized: as Dio Cassius puts it, Caligula "took in one day all the honours which Augustus had with difficulty been induced to accept".Cassius Dio, Cary, E., & Herbert Baldwin Foster. (1924). Dio’s Roman History (p. 268). Harvard University Press; London.
Nevertheless, under this "Principate stricto sensu", the political reality of autocratic rule by the Roman emperor was still scrupulously masked by forms and conventions of oligarchy self-rule inherited from the political period of the 'uncrowned' Roman Republic (509 BC–27 BC) under the motto Senatus Populusque Romanus ("The Senate and people of Rome") or SPQR. Initially, the theory implied the 'first citizen' had to earn his extraordinary position ( de facto evolving to nearly absolute monarchy) by merit in the style that Augustus himself had gained the position of auctoritas.
Imperial propaganda developed a paternalistic ideology, presenting the princeps as the very incarnation of all virtues attributed to the ideal ruler (much like a Greek tyrannos earlier), such as clemency and justice, and military leadership,C Edwards Intro, Lives of the Caesars (OUP 2000) p. xxi obliging the princeps to play this designated role within Ancient Rome society, as his political insurance as well as a moral duty. What specifically was expected of the princeps seems to have varied according to the times, and the observers:C Edwards Intro, Lives of the Caesars (OUP 2000) pp. xxiii–xxv Tiberius, who amassed a huge surplus for the city of Rome, was criticized as a miser,Gaius Tranquillus Suetonius, Graves, R., & Grant, M. (2006). The Twelve Caesars (pp. 129–130). Penguin. while his successor Caligula was criticized for his lavish spending on games and spectacles.Gaius Tranquillus Suetonius, Graves, R., & Grant, M. (2006). The Twelve Caesars (pp. 165–167). Penguin.
Generally speaking, it was expected of the Emperor to be generous but not frivolous, not just as a good ruler but also with his Fiscus (as in the proverbial "bread and circuses" – panem et circenses) providing occasional public games, gladiators, chariot races and artistic shows. Large distributions of food for the public and charitable institutions also served as popularity boosters, while the construction of public works provided paid employment for the poor.
In 23 B.C., he was granted full and lifelong tribunician power, the civilian foundation of his authority, and a majus proconsular imperium (greater than that of the proconsuls of the senatorial provinces). In 2 B.C., he was awarded the title Father of the Country, symbolically placing the entire Roman people under his protection. Everywhere, he was seen as the "first citizen", the princeps. Augustus influenced the election of magistrates through recommendations, and directed foreign policy and diplomacy. He commanded significant financial resources through his personal wealth (partially inherited from Caesar), revenues from Egypt (his private domain), and various taxes. However, as he spent heavily on administration, wars, and the upkeep of 200,000 impoverished citizens, the Empire’s budget faced difficulties towards the end of his reign. Augustus lost all his direct heirs in succession, so he prepared his stepson, Tiberius, to succeed him without challenge.
Augustus relied on homines novi or “new men”: knights, military men, prominent figures from Italian towns, and senators who had joined his cause in hopes of securing key positions. Conservative by nature, he pursued policies that restricted slaves and limited . Favoring moral order and family values, he enacted laws against celibacy and "immoral behavior."
Augustus completed the pacification of the Cantabri and Astures in Spain. The Empire expanded to the Danube with the creation of the provinces of Moesia and Pannonia. The Alps peoples were finally subdued by Tiberius and Drusus, and divided into the provinces of Noricum, Raetia, and the Maritime Alps. The prolonged war against the Germans led the army as far as the Weser and Elbe rivers. However, in the year 9, the Germanic leader Arminius revolted, annihilating three legions under Varus in the Teutoburg Forest. Germania was ultimately abandoned by Tiberius in 17, and two sectors along the left bank of the Rhine were then called Germania.
Caligula (37-41), the son of Germanicus, was soon accused of madness and was assassinated by his own guard before completing his fourth year of rule. The Praetorians then hailed Caligula’s uncle, Claudius (41-54), one of the few survivors of Sejanus’ schemes, as emperor.
Under Claudius, the freedmen Narcissus and Pallas established the imperial chancery and the fiscus (imperial treasury), providing the emperors with the institutions they had previously lacked. Claudius was supportive of the promotion of provincials, granting citizenship to several Alpine peoples and even admitting notable Gauls from Transalpine Gaul (beyond Cisalpine Gaul and Provence) into the Senate. He completed the conquest of Mauretania and began imposing Roman rule in Roman Britain.
The imperial court was a hotbed of intrigue. Claudius' fourth wife, Messalina, was unfaithful to him, eventually leading to her execution. Agrippina, his niece and fifth wife, schemed to the extent that she succeeded in getting the emperor to adopt her son from a previous marriage, Nero. In 54, she poisoned the emperor, and despite his age of only 17, the Praetorians accepted her son as emperor.
Nero initially ruled under his mother’s influence but had her assassinated in 59. He followed the guidance of Burrus and the younger Seneca until Burrus' (natural) death in 62. Afterward, he dismissed Seneca and ruled alone.
Vespasian is credited with stabilizing the Empire’s finances, heavily depleted after Nero’s reign and the civil wars, by imposing new taxes and restoring discipline in provincial governance. His reign also saw the beginning of major construction projects, including the initiation of the Flavian Amphitheatre, better known as the Colosseum, which symbolized Roman engineering prowess and cultural grandeur.
His elder son, Titus (79–81), succeeded him and is remembered for his military success during the Jewish War, culminating in the capture of Jerusalem in 70 AD and the destruction of the Second Temple. Despite his brief reign, Titus won the favor of the Roman populace for his generosity in responding to disasters such as the eruption of Mount Vesuvius in 79 AD and a fire in Rome.
Domitian (81–96), the younger son, consolidated the gains of his predecessors but ruled with an increasingly Autocracy style. He expanded the Empire's frontiers, strengthening defenses in Germania and Britain, and enhanced the administrative efficiency of the imperial government, particularly in the provinces. However, his authoritarian rule and the execution of many senators led to growing discontent among Rome’s elite. Ultimately, he was assassinated in 96 AD in a palace conspiracy, bringing the Flavian dynasty to an end.
Despite the dynasty's controversial reputation, the Flavians left a lasting legacy by restoring stability to the Empire, promoting monumental architecture, and laying the groundwork for the prosperity of the subsequent Antonine period.
Emperor Hadrian focused on a more defensive policy. During his reign, significant fortifications developed in various border regions, notably in Africa and Britain, often referred to as limes. Additionally, Hadrian worked to improve the empire's functioning. Continuing efforts begun by previous emperors, he promoted the integration of provincials, notably through the creation of honorary colonies: while the term colony once mainly referred to the settlement of Roman colonists, it now became an honorary title for a city, granting Roman citizenship to all its inhabitants.
Under Antoninus Pius (138-161), a new distinction appeared in law between the honestiores (wealthy) and humiliores (poor), with the latter facing harsher punishments for the same offenses. Marcus Aurelius (161-180), known as a Stoic philosopher-emperor, spent 15 years on the Danube frontier fighting against barbarian invasions. The empire was entering a less favorable period: its neighbors at the borders seemed more powerful, it faced agrarian difficulties, famines, and the outbreak of the Antonine Plague. Marcus Aurelius chose his son, Commodus (180-192), as his successor. Commodus' assassination ended the Antonine dynasty.
Severus named his two sons Augustus, but upon his death, Caracalla (211-217) hastily killed his young brother Geta. Caracalla is remembered for the Edict of 212 (Constitutio Antoniniana), which granted Roman citizenship to nearly all free inhabitants of the Empire, significantly altering its social structure. However, Caracalla was assassinated on the Parthian front by the Praetorian Prefect Macrinus (217-218), who briefly succeeded him but failed to hold onto power for long.
Caracalla’s cousin, Elagabalus (218-222), then became emperor, primarily under the influence of his grandmother, Julia Maesa, who had orchestrated his ascent. Elagabalus’ fixation on the cult of the sun god Elagabal led to widespread dissatisfaction and unrest, culminating in his assassination by the Praetorians. His cousin Severus Alexander (222-235) succeeded him, but his relatively weak leadership and reliance on his mother’s advice alienated the military. After Severus Alexander’s assassination, the Empire entered a period of severe instability, often referred to as the "Crisis of the Third Century" or "military anarchy." Although imperial power fluctuated, it was never entirely absent during this tumultuous era.
Both the Senate and the people were deeply fearful of civil war with each succession. Therefore, they eagerly accepted the idea that a descendant of the reigning prince would succeed his father. One of the emperor’s duties was to ensure a peaceful transmission of the throne. The most logical choice, even in the eyes of the Romans, was to designate his son or adopt one. When a reigning emperor successfully passed on his power to a successor, it was seen as the completion of a successful reign. In fact, while hereditary succession was not a principle of public law, it was an aristocratic practice accepted by Roman opinion. In times of crisis, a general celebrated in triumph by his soldiers could, through military force, rise to the supreme power. The Praetorian Guard, tasked with guarding the emperor’s security, played an increasing role in the plots and assassinations that marked the imperial period.
The imperial cult also served as a means of uniting the diverse peoples of the Empire, with their varying cultures and beliefs, around respect for Roman power through the deified emperor. Across the Empire, temples dedicated to the imperial cult were either restored or newly constructed. Ceremonies were held in honor of the emperor, providing an opportunity for the community to gather in processions, engage in sacrifices, enjoy banquets, and participate in various spectacles.
For the empire's leaders, it became a shared heritage administered in the name of the emperor. While attachment to one's homeland was still respected as a sign of the vitality of civic ideals, it was Roman identity, or Romanitas, that provided the foundation for a common political space. For the more modest populations, the changes were also profound, though more difficult to discern: Latin spread even among the humbler people, even if local languages persisted, and Roman ways of life were widely adopted. With the stabilization of the borders, the Roman army organized itself around large camps and border regions, and the recruitment of soldiers became increasingly regional, without compromising the army's quality.
In the Roman province, the governor, either a proconsul or a Praetor, was appointed by the Senate. During Augustus’ reign, these governors were selected by lot for a one-year term and assisted by quaestors who handled financial administration. A procurator, a member of the equestrian order, managed the emperor's interests, such as mines, estates, and special taxes. The senatorial provinces were peaceful, and no legions were stationed permanently in them.
In the Roman province, the governor, a legate or procurator, was appointed by the emperor. Egypt, in particular, was governed by a prefect from the equestrian order appointed by the emperor. However, the emperor had oversight powers over all provinces, even appointing extraordinary legates in the senatorial provinces. Italy, unlike other provinces, had a privileged status. All free inhabitants of Italy were Roman citizens and were exempt from land taxes.
Italy was not considered a province but was directly administered by the Senate of Rome. Under the reign of Hadrian, it was divided into four districts that were not under the Senate's control. This division was reversed by Hadrian's successor, Antoninus Pius, following pressure from the senators.
Governors were typically appointed for terms not exceeding three years. They maintained close communication with the central government through ongoing correspondence. Their duties included overseeing taxes, maintaining public order, conducting censuses, and ensuring the protection of property. Governors had minimal administrative staff, and their primary involvement in provincial life was in judicial matters, managing disturbances, and addressing financial difficulties within cities. Most administrative tasks were handled locally within the city framework, which was considered by Romans to be the ideal way of life. Where cities did not exist, especially in the West, the Romans established them. The more just administration of the Empire compared to the Republic helped the inhabitants of the provinces to form a deeper attachment to Roman rule.
In the capital, the emperor was assisted by various bodies and individuals in governance. The imperial council, which helped in making key decisions, consisted of men chosen for their military, legal, or diplomatic expertise. Over time, the council became permanent and gained significant influence in the governance of the Empire. Hadrian restructured the council, predominantly selecting jurists. The praetorian prefect was one of the most important figures in the imperial entourage, commanding the Praetorian Guard and serving as second-in-command during military expeditions. His growing power even posed a threat to the imperial authority. Under Augustus, the highest positions were held by members of the senatorial or equestrian classes, while lower positions were given to the emperor's freedmen or even slaves from his household. This system remained in place until the reign of Hadrian, who entrusted the management of offices to equestrians, relegating the freedmen to subordinate roles.
One of Hadrian’s priorities was to protect the Roman Empire from barbarian invasions, leading him to build the famous Hadrian's Wall in northern Britain. This wall stretched 120 km from the mouth of the River Tyne to Solway Firth, featuring 300 towers and 17 fortified camps. In Germania, the Agri Decumates were similarly protected by limes running from Mainz to Regensburg. Hadrian’s successors continued this fortification strategy along the borders of Germania, the East, and Africa, erecting walls and structures that eventually earned the collective name "limes" (in Latin, meaning a border patrol road). Strategic Roman roads were built to facilitate movement and defend against attacks, covering a total of 9,000 km of frontier.
The Roman army, focused on defending these borders, was composed of around 400,000 soldiers spread across 30 Roman legion. The soldiers included about 150,000 Roman citizens who served for 20 years, supplemented by Auxilia recruited from non-citizens. These auxiliaries were granted Roman citizenship after 25 years of service. From Hadrian’s time, some auxiliary troops maintained their traditional arms and practices, distinguishing them from the Roman legions. The Romans faced increasing difficulty recruiting soldiers from Italy, as the Italian population increasingly resisted military service. Consequently, recruits were drawn from provinces, particularly those less Romanized. While the Praetorian Guard and officers () continued to be recruited from Italy, the army as a whole became a professional force composed of various peoples from across the Empire.
The cohesion of the Roman army was founded on rigorous training, strict discipline, and a distinctive religious culture centered around traditional Roman gods and the imperial cult. The military engineers were responsible for constructing vital infrastructure like canals, roads, aqueducts, and fortifications of cities. The army’s presence along the borders played a significant role in the economic development of these regions and was a powerful tool of Romanization.
The subjects of the Empire were free men who were not Roman citizens. They could testify in court but were required to pay the tributum, a direct tax. Roman citizenship could be obtained by birth, decree, or after 25 years of military service. Roman citizens did not pay the tributum. Most citizens had modest occupations, and in Rome, 200,000 poor citizens relied on free grain distributions (the annona) to survive.
The wealthiest individuals were part of the Equites or senatorial orders, appointed by the emperor. In this hierarchical society, there were distinctions between the senatorial order and the decurional order. During Augustus's reign, the equestrian order was at his disposal and became the main source of imperial administration. Nobiles (nobiles) were defined by one's origin rather than status, though over time, the social markers of nobilitas diminished. By the 2nd century, the procession of portraits, once an important symbol of status, had become reserved solely for imperial funerals.
In the early Empire, society was not rigidly fixed. Slaves, especially those in urban areas, could often be freed by their masters. Gradually, all free men gained citizenship, and in 212 AD, the Edict of Caracalla made all free men Roman citizens, although dediticii (Barbarians) were excluded from this privilege. For instance, in Volubilis, the isolated peasants and semi-nomadic tribes around the city remained subjects of the Empire, with a few leaders rewarded with citizenship for their loyalty.
Over time, distinctions were made between the honestiores (the powerful) and the humiliores (the humble). These social categories replaced the earlier legal distinction between citizens and non-citizens, with the rich and powerful receiving preferential treatment in the courts over the poor.
The Thermae appeared at the end of the Republic, and emperors built many baths for the entertainment of the Roman Plebeians. To provide the water needed for the baths and the growing population, many aqueducts were constructed. By the 1st century, these aqueducts could deliver up to 992,000 cubic meters of water to the city every 24 hours. Rome had grown in a disorganized manner over the centuries. The streets were narrow and winding. After the great fire of Rome in 64 AD, Nero had the city rebuilt with wider, more spacious roads. The wealthiest lived in large Roman villa, while the poorer classes resided in apartment buildings, known as insulae.
Major cities such as Carthage and Antioch flourished. The Romans built cities across the Empire following the regular grid plan called the Grid plan. The city was organized around two main streets: the cardo (north-south axis) and the decumanus (east-west axis). Typical Roman monuments were found in these cities, including forums, basilicas, temples, and amphitheaters. Each city was headed by a local senate called the curia, composed of wealthy citizens of the Empire, forming the ordo decurionum. It was within this council that magistrates were elected: (in charge of market and street police), duumviri (magistrates with judicial responsibilities), and duumviri quinquennales (elected every five years to take on censorial functions). The ordo decurionum was responsible for managing the city's finances ( pecunia publica), maintaining public order, and dealing with the central power.
The decurions and, particularly, the magistrates, financed much of the construction of monuments and temples from their own funds. They could also voluntarily add a personal donation to legally required sums. This practice, known as Euergetism, played a significant role in the construction and life of the cities. Evergetism allowed the city's aristocrats to demonstrate their generosity and wealth, often serving as a tool for self-celebration, supporting family strategies, and ensuring political cohesion. The monument donated would remind future generations of the family's glory, while at the same time, strengthening political and social unity. Evergetism could also be seen as a reciprocal act, a counter-gift that responded to the respect the city showed the donor and the political power it granted. Festivals, spectacles, and various distributions, often stemming from evergetism, contributed to the creation and maintenance of a municipal culture and civic unity in the cities. While past historiography suggested that evergetism might explain the abandonment of political duties by local aristocracies, this hypothesis is no longer widely accepted, and it is now understood that there was no widespread desertion of the curiae.
In the western cities of the empire, Latin spread, while the east remained faithful to the Ancient Greek.
The main artisanal activities took place in both rural areas and cities: textile production, tool manufacturing and maintenance, and pottery production. For a long time, historians considered ancient cities as merely consumer hubs, but after significant debate, this view has been significantly revised. Important mining regions existed in Spain and the Danubian regions, though here too, technological progress was minimal. Manual labor and mercantile activity were considered beneath the educated classes, and reserved for lower classes and slaves. The existence of slaves may have also hindered technological progress. However, recent archaeological research has strongly revised these judgments, with archaeologists and historians agreeing on the significant and early diffusion of watermills in the Roman Empire.
The peace and prosperity of the High Empire led to an increase in commercial activities. The Mediterranean at the heart of the Roman Empire witnessed intense trade. Piracy was greatly reduced thanks to the emperor's naval fleets which were in patrol constantly. Ships increasingly ventured into the open sea to shorten travel times, but for shorter or medium-range trips, sailors preferred coastal cabotage. Navigation in the Mediterranean was allowed from March to October, and no navigation occurred during the winter months. Major Mediterranean ports included Ostia Antica (Rome’s port), Alexandria in Egypt, and Carthage in Africa. Commercial links also extended to the Baltic Sea, and sub-Saharan Africa via trans-Saharan caravans, India, and China, showing that the empire was not a closed space. Romans’ taste for luxury goods fueled international trade. In this sense, the Empire extended the last two centuries of the Republic, but over time, Italian economic dominance in areas such as Terra sigillata, , and wines gradually gave way to provincial productions.
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