Marble is a metamorphic rock consisting of carbonate minerals (most commonly calcite (CaCO3) or dolomite (CaMg(CO3)2) that have recrystallized under the influence of heat and pressure.
In geology, the term marble refers to metamorphosed limestone, but its use in stonemasonry more broadly encompasses unmetamorphosed limestone.[Kearey, Philip (2001). Dictionary of Geology, Penguin Group, London and New York, p. 163. ]
The extraction of marble is performed by quarrying. Marble production is dominated by four countries: China, Italy, India and Spain, which account for almost half of world production of marble and decorative stone.
Because of its high hardness and strong wear resistance, and because it will not be deformed by temperature, marble is often used in Marble sculpture and construction.
Etymology
The word "marble" derives from the
Ancient Greek μάρμαρον (mármaron),
from μάρμαρος (mármaros), "crystalline rock, shining stone",
[ μάρμαρος , Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, A Greek–English Lexicon, on Perseus Digital Library][ Marble, Compact Oxford English Dictionary. Askoxford.com. Retrieved on 2011-09-30.] perhaps from the verb μαρμαίρω (marmaírō), "to flash, sparkle, gleam";
[ μαρμαίρω , Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, A Greek–English Lexicon, on Perseus Digital Library] R. S. P. Beekes has suggested that a "
Pre-Greek origin is probable".
[R. S. P. Beekes, Etymological Dictionary of Greek, Brill, 2009, p. 907.]
This stem is also the ancestor of the English language word "marmoreal", meaning "marble-like."
Geology
,
Chile|210x210px]]Marble is a rock resulting from
metamorphism of
sedimentary rock , most commonly
limestone or dolomite. Metamorphism causes variable re-crystallization of the original carbonate mineral grains. The resulting marble rock is typically composed of an interlocking mosaic of carbonate
. Primary sedimentary textures and structures of the original carbonate rock (
protolith) have typically been modified or destroyed.
Pure white marble is the result of metamorphism of a very pure (silicate-poor) limestone or dolomite protolith. The characteristic swirls and veins of many colored marble varieties, sometimes called striations, are usually due to various mineral impurities such as clay, silt, sand, , or chert which were originally present as grains or layers in the limestone. Green coloration is often due to Serpentine group resulting from originally magnesium-rich limestone or dolomite with silica impurities. These various impurities have been mobilized and recrystallized by the intense pressure and heat of the metamorphism.
Chemistry
Degradation by acids
react with the calcium carbonate in marble, producing
carbonic acid (which decomposes quickly to CO
2 and H
2O) and other soluble salts :
- CaCO3(s) + 2H+(aq) → Ca2+(aq) + CO2(g) + H2O (l)
Outdoor marble statues, headstone, or other marble structures are damaged by acid rain whether by carbonation, sulfation or the formation of "black-crust" (accumulation of calcium sulphate, nitrates and carbon particles).
Crystallization
Crystallization refers to a method of imparting a glossy, more durable finish on to a marble floor (CaCO
3). It involves polishing the surface with an acidic solution and a steel wool pad on a flooring machine. The chemical reaction below shows a typical process using magnesium fluorosilicate (MgSiF
6) and hydrochloric acid (HCl) taking place.
- CaCO3(s) + MgSiF6(l) + 2HCl (l) → MgCl2(s) + CaSiF6(s) + CO2(g) + H2O(l)
The resulting calcium hexafluorosilicate (CaSiF6) is bonded to the surface of the marble. This is harder, more glossy and stain resistant compared to the original surface.
The other often used method of finishing marble is to polish with oxalic acid (H2C2O4), an organic acid. The resulting reaction is as follows:
- CaCO3(s) + H2C2O4(l) → CaC2O4(s) + CO2(g) + H2O(l)
In this case the calcium oxalate (CaC2O4) formed in the reaction is washed away with the slurry, leaving a surface that has not been chemically changed.
Microbial degradation
The haloalkaliphilic methylotrophic bacterium
Methylophaga murata was isolated from deteriorating marble in the
Kremlin.
Bacterial and fungal degradation was detected in four samples of marble from
Milan Cathedral; black
Cladosporium attacked dried
acrylic resin using melanin.
Types and features
Examples of notable marble varieties and locations
|
|
| Sivec | white | near Prilep (Прилеп), Pelagonia (Пелагониски) | North Macedonia |
| Carrara marble | white or blue-gray | Carrara, Tuscany | Italy |
| Statuario marble | white, golden, black | Carrara, Apuan Alps | Italy |
| Creole marble | white and blue/black | Pickens County, Georgia | United States |
| Etowah marble | pink, salmon, rose | Pickens County, Georgia | United States |
| Hanbaiyu marble | white | Quyang County, Hebei | China |
| Makrana marble | white | Makrana, Nagaur district, Rajasthan | India |
| Murphy marble | white | Pickens and Gilmer Counties, Georgia | United States |
| Nero Marquina marble | black | Markina-Xemein, Bizkaia, Basque County | Spain |
| Parian marble | pure-white, fine-grained | Island of Paros (Πάρος), South Aegean (Νοτίου Αιγαίου) | Greece |
Pentelic marble[ Pentelic marble , Britannica Online Encyclopaedia. Britannica.com. Retrieved on 2011-09-30.] | pure-white, fine-grained semitranslucent | Mount Pentelicus (Πεντελικό όρος), Attica (Ἀττική) | Greece |
| Prokonnesos marble | white | Marmara Island, Sea of Marmara | Turkey |
| Ruskeala | white | near Ruskeala (Рускеала), Karelia (Карелия) | Russia |
Rușchița marble | white, pinkish, reddish | Poiana Ruscă Mountains, Caraș-Severin County | Romania |
| Swedish green marble | green | near Kolmården, Södermanland | Sweden |
| Sylacauga marble | white | Talladega County, Alabama | United States |
| Venčac marble | white | Venčac mountain near Aranđelovac | Serbia |
| Vermont marble | white | Proctor, Vermont | United States |
| Wunsiedel Marble | white | Wunsiedel, Bavaria | Germany |
| Yule Marble | uniform pure white | near Marble, Colorado | United States |
Features
Marble is a rock composed of
calcium and magnesium carbonate, mostly white and pink.
Common marble varieties are granular limestone or dolomite. The
hardness of marble is very high, because the internal structure of the rock is very uniform after long-term natural aging, and the internal stress disappears, so the marble will not be deformed due to temperature, and has strong wear resistance. It is a popular building material.
The following table is a summary of the features of marble.
| +
!Color | White, Pink, Black etc |
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Uses
Sculpture
White marble has been prized for its use in
marble sculpture since classical times. This preference has to do with its softness, which made it easier to carve, relative
isotropy and homogeneity, and a relative resistance to shattering. Also, the low
Refractive index of calcite allows light to penetrate 12.7 to 38 millimeters into the stone before being scattered out, resulting in the characteristic waxy look which brings a lifelike luster to marble sculptures of any kind, which is why many sculptors preferred and still prefer marble for sculpting the human form.
["Marble", Britannica Online Encyclopaedia. Britannica.com.; Clarke, Michael, The Concise Oxford Dictionary of Art Terms, p.148, 2001, Oxford University Press, ]
Construction
Construction marble is a stone which is composed of calcite, dolomite or serpentine that is capable of taking a polish.
[Marble Institute of America pp. 223 Glossary] More generally in
construction, specifically the
dimension stone trade, the term
marble is used for any crystalline calcitic rock (and some non-calcitic rocks) useful as building stone. For example,
Tennessee marble is really a dense granular fossiliferous gray to pink to maroon
Ordovician limestone, that
call the Holston Formation.
Ashgabat, the capital city of Turkmenistan, was recorded in the 2013 Guinness Book of Records as having the world's highest concentration of white marble buildings.
Production
The extraction of marble is performed by
. Blocks are favoured for most purposes, and can be created through various techniques, including drilling and blasting, water jet and wedge methods.
Limestones are often commercially and historically referred to as marble, which differs from the geological definition.
Locations
Marble production was dominated by 4 countries that accounted for almost half of world production of marble and decorative stone.
China and
Italy were the world leaders, each representing 34% and 19% of world production respectively, followed by
India and
Spain produced 16% and 13% respectively.
[ Country wise production of stones in percentages]
In 2018 Turkey was the world leader in marble export, with 42% share in global marble trade, followed by Italy with 18% and Greece with 10%. The largest importer of marble in 2018 was China with a 64% market share, followed by India with 11% and Italy with 5%.
Ancient times
White marbles throughout the Mediterranean basin were widely utilized during the
Ancient Rome period. Extraction centers were unevenly distributed across the Italian Peninsula,
mainland Greece, the
Aegean Islands,
Anatolia, and smaller hubs like those in the Iberian Peninsula. The need for extensive trade arose due to this imbalance, leading to the widespread exchange of marble objects, including building elements, sculptures, and
Sarcophagus. There was a significant increase in the distribution of white marble from the late 1st century BC to the end of the 2nd century AD. A gradual decline in distribution started in the third century AD.
United States
According to the United States Geological Survey, U.S. domestic marble production in 2006 was 46,400 tons valued at about $18.1 million, compared to 72,300 tons valued at $18.9 million in 2005. Crushed marble production (for aggregate and industrial uses) in 2006 was 11.8 million tons valued at $116 million, of which 6.5 million tons was finely ground calcium carbonate and the rest was construction aggregate. For comparison, 2005 crushed marble production was 7.76 million tons valued at $58.7 million, of which 4.8 million tons was finely ground calcium carbonate and the rest was construction aggregate. U.S. dimension marble demand is about 1.3 million tons. The DSAN World Demand for (finished) Marble Index has shown a growth of 12% annually for the 2000–2006 period, compared to 10.5% annually for the 2000–2005 period. The largest dimension marble application is tile.
Palestine
The stone and marble industry is one of the largest industries in Palestine, contributing 20-25% of its total industrial revenues, generating USD $400–$450 million in revenue annually. The industry employs 15,000–20,000 workers across the West Bank across 1200–1700 facilities, and amounts to 4.5% of the nation's GDP. The vast majority of the industry's exports are to Israel.
Marble in the geologic sense does not naturally outcrop in Palestine, and the vast majority of commercially labeled marble produced in Palestine produced would be geologically considered limestone.
Occupational safety
Particulate air pollution exposure has been found to be elevated in the marble production industry. Exposure to the dust produced by cutting marble could impair lung function or cause lung disease in workers, such as
silicosis. Skin and eye problems are also a potential hazard. Mitigations such as dust filters, or dust suppression are suggested, but more research needs to be carried out on the efficacy of safety measures.
[Foja, A.F. (1993) Marble industry: its socioeconomic, environmental and health effects among marble worker/producer households in Romblon . Philippines University Thesis. fao.org]
In the United States, the Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) has set the legal limit (permissible exposure limit) for marble exposure in the workplace as 15 mg/m3 total exposure and 5 mg/m3 respiratory exposure over an 8-hour workday. The National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) has set a recommended exposure limit (REL) of 10 mg/m3 total exposure and 5 mg/m3 respiratory exposure over an 8-hour workday.
Dust, debris and temperature fluctuations from working marble can endanger the eye health of employees.
Cultural associations
As the favorite medium for Greek and Roman sculptors and architects (see classical sculpture), marble has become a cultural symbol of tradition and refined taste. Its extremely varied and colorful patterns make it a favorite decorative material.
Places named after the stone include Marblehead, Massachusetts; Marblehead, Ohio; Marble Arch, London; the Sea of Marmara; India's Marble Rocks; and the towns of Marble, Minnesota; Marble, Colorado; Marble Falls, Texas, and Marble Hill, Manhattan, New York. The Elgin Marbles are marble sculptures from the Parthenon in Athens that are on display in the British Museum.
Impact on the environment
Total world
production in 2019 was approximately 316 million tonnes; however, quarrying waste accounted for 53% of this total production.
In the process of marble mining and processing, around half of the excavated material will be waste, this is often then used as chips for flooring or wall finish, and uses for which high-calcium limestone is suitable.
Sustainability
Marble
sludge waste can be used as a mineral filler in water-based paints.
Using ground calcium carbonate as a filler in paint production can improve the brightness,
hiding power and application performance of paint, and can also replace expensive
such as
titanium dioxide.
Recycling of marble waste leads to a large amount of waste not being land-filled, reducing environmental pollution, thereby realizing the sustainability of marble. Converting waste to generate economic income and restore degraded soil can improve the environment.
Cleaning and preservation
The nature of marble is soft and porous, so it is easily scratched, and stained by colored liquids. Maintenance and cleaning is particularly important.
Preservation
-
Prevent sand and dust from contacting the marble surface.
-
Avoid corroding marble surfaces with alcohol, color and acidic liquids.
Cleaning
-
As a floor material, marble is easy to scratch. You can first use a vacuum cleaner to suck away the grit and dust on the marble floor, and then use a steam cleaner to remove other dirt.
-
A mild, pH-neutral, non-abrasive soap should be used for cleaning marble surfaces. Wipe with a soft foam cotton or rag.
Gallery
File:Nike of Samothrake Louvre Ma2369 n4.jpg|The Nike of Samothrace is made of Parian marble ()
File:Laocoön and his sons group.jpg| Laocoön and His Sons in the Vatican Museums
File:Treasury Gate, Dolmabahçe Palace, Istanbul, Turkey 001.jpg|Dolmabahçe Palace in Istanbul
File:Lens - Inauguration du Louvre-Lens le 4 décembre 2012, la Galerie du Temps, n° 058.JPG|The Praetorians Relief, made from grey veined marble, AD
File:Imgp7544.jpg|Ancient marble columns in the prayer hall of the Mosque of Uqba, in Kairouan, Tunisia
File:Cleopatra by William Wetmore Story 03.jpg| Cleopatra by William Wetmore Story was described and admired in Nathaniel Hawthorne's romance The Marble Faun, and is on display at The Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York City.
File:Per Hasselberg Näckrosen Rottneros Park.jpg| Näckrosen ( Water Lily), Stockholm 1892, by Swedish sculptor Per Hasselberg (1850–1894). Here a copy from 1953 in marble by Giovanni Ardini (Italy) placed in Rottneros Park near Sunne in Värmland/Sweden.
File:Pažaislis Monastery interior 1, Kaunas, Lithuania - Diliff.jpg|Pažaislis Monastery complex has the most marble-decorated Baroque church of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania
File:Petropolis-Cathedral1.jpg|The tombs of Emperor Pedro II of Brazil and other members of the Brazilian imperial family, made from Carrara marble in the Cathedral of Petrópolis, Brazil
File:Flickr - USCapitol - Car of History Clock (1).jpg|Carlo Franzoni's life-size sculptural marble chariot clock, the Car of History, depicting Clio, the Greek muse of history (National Statuary Hall, U.S. Capitol Building).
See also
External links
