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Hegemony (, , ) is the political, economic, and military predominance of one state over other states, either regional or global.Luis L. Schenoni (2025). 9780190846626, Oxford University Press and International Studies Association, LLC. . ISBN 9780190846626
In Ancient Greece (ca. 8th BC – AD 6th c.), hegemony denoted the politico-military dominance of the hegemon city-state over other city-states. (1994). 9780231080989, Columbia University Press. ISBN 9780231080989 In the 19th century, hegemony denoted the "social or cultural predominance or ascendancy; predominance by one group within a society or milieu" and "a group or regime which exerts undue influence within a society". (Definitions 2a and 2b)
In theories of imperialism, the hegemonic order dictates the internal politics and the societal character of the subordinate states that constitute the hegemonic sphere of influence, either by an internal, vassal state or by an external, puppet state.
The term hegemonism denoted the geopolitical and the cultural predominance of one country over other countries, e.g. the hegemony of the Great power established with European colonialism in Africa, Asia, and Latin America. (1999). 9780002558716, HarperCollins. ISBN 9780002558716
In International Relations theories, hegemony is distinguished from empire as ruling only external but not internal affairs of other states.Snyder, Jack (2002) "The myths of empire and strategies of hegemony," Lessons of Empire: Imperial Histories and American Power, (eds. Craig Calhoun, Frederick Cooper and Kevin Moore, New York: The New Press), p 270.
In Ancient East Asia, Chinese hegemony existed during the Spring and Autumn period (c. 770–480 BC), when the weakened rule of the Eastern Zhou dynasty led to the relative autonomy of the Five Hegemons ( Ba in Chinese 霸). The term is translated as lord protector, or lord of the covenants, or chief of the feudal lords and is described as intermediate between king of independent state and Emperor of All under Heaven. Guanzi: Economic Dialogues in Ancient China, ed. Adam K. W. Wen, Connecticut: New Heaven, 1954, p. 60. The hegemons were appointed by Feudalism lord conferences and were nominally obliged to support the King of Zhou, Encyclopædia Britannica, "Ch'i": "As a result, Ch'i began to dominate most of China proper; in 651 BC it formed the little states of the area into a league, which was successful in staving off invasions from the semi-barbarian regimes to the north and south. Although Ch'i thus gained hegemony over China, its rule was short-lived; after Duke Huan's death, internal disorders caused it to lose the leadership of the new confederation." whose status parallel to that of the Roman Pope in the medieval Europe.
In 364 BC, Qin emerged victorious from war and its Duke Xian (424–362 BC) was named hegemon by the King of Zhou.Sima Qian, 4:160. Records of the Grand Historian, ed. Burton Watson, Hong Kong: Columbia University Press, 1962. Qin rulers did not preserve the official title of hegemon but in fact kept the hegemony over their world: "For more than one hundred years before Qin commanded eight lands and brought the lord of equal rank to its court."Sima Qian, 6:282. One of the six other great powers, Wei, was annexed as early as 324 BC. From the reign of Duke Xian on, "Qin gradually swallowed up the six other states until, after hundred years or so, the First Emperor was able to bring all kings under his power."Sima Qian, 1:87–88.
The century preceding the Qin's wars of unification in 221 BC was dominated by confrontation between the hegemonic horizontal alliance led by Qin and the anti-hegemonic alliance called perpendicular or vertical.Sima Qian, 6:279. "The political world appears as a chaos of ever-changing coalitions, but in which each new combination could ultimately be defined by its relation to Qin". Cambridge Ancient History of China, 1999, p. 633.
The first anti-hegemonic or perpendicular alliance was formed in 322 BC. Qin was supported by one state, Wei, which it had annexed two years previously. The remaining five great warring states of China joined in the anti-hegemonic coalition and attacked Qin in 318 BC.Sima Qian, 5:208. "Qin, supported by one annexed state, overwhelmed the world coalition."Ostrovsky, p. 257. The same scenario repeated itself several times.Sima Qian, 4:167, 5:208–224.Han Fei,1:5–12. Complete Works, tr. W. K. Liao, London: Columbia University Press, 1959.) until Qin decisively moved from hegemony to conquests and annexations in 221 BC.
With few exceptions, the Roman treaties with client states ( foedera) were formulized on equal terms without any expression of clientship and the Romans almost never used the word "client." The term "client king" is an invention of the post-Renaissance scholarship.Andrew Lintott, Imperium Romanum: Politics and Administration, London: Routledge, 1993, p. 32. Those who are conventionally called by modern historians of Rome "client kings" were referred to as "allies and friends" of the Roman people. "Alliance" and "friendship," not any kind of subordination, bound them to Rome.Cassius Dio, Roman History, (tr. Earnest Lary, London: Loeb, 1961), 20:68:3; 28:53; 33:34; 36:21; 37:14; 38:33–34; 39:33; 41:11, 13; 43:27.Diodorus Siculus, Bibliotheca historica, (tr. C. H. Oldfather, London: Loeb, 1946), 33:16; 34/5:31.Vergil, Aeneid, in Cosmos and Imperium, (Oxford University Press, 1986), 7:543.Sallust, Jugurtha, (London: Loeb, 1961), 14:2; 83.Sallust, Histories, (London: Loeb, 1961), 1:11.Julius Caesar, Gallic Wars, (trs. V. O. Gorenstein, & M. M. Pokrovsky, Moscow: Ladomir, 1981), 1:3, 11, 35.Lintott, 1993, p 32.Sands, 1975, pp. 10–11, 46, 49, 54.
No regular or formal tribute was extracted from client states. The land of a client state could not officially be a basis for taxation.Sands, 1975, pp. 127–128, 152–155. The overall fact is that, despite extensive conquests, the Romans did not settle down nor extracted revenues in any subdued territories between 200 and 148 BC.John North, "The development of Roman imperialism," Journal of Roman Studies, 71: (1981), p. 2. The first good evidence for regular taxation of another kingdom comes from Judea as late as 64 BC.Lintott, 1993, p. 35.
The Roman hegemony of the late Republic left to the Mediterranean kings internal autonomy and obliged them not to enter alliances hostile to Rome and not to wage offensive wars without consent of the Senate. Annexations usually followed when client kings broke this order (Macedonia in 148 BC and Pontus in 64 BC). In the course of these and other annexations, Rome gradually evolved from hegemony into empire. The last major client state of the Mediterranean—the Ptolemaic Kingdom—was annexed by Augustus in the very beginning of his reign in 30 BC.
Augustus initiated an unprecedented era of peace, shortly after his reign called Pax Romana. This peace however was imperial rather than hegemonic. Classic and modern scholarsParchami, A., Hegemonic Peace and Empire: The Pax Romana, Britannica and Americana, Routledge, 2009, p. 32, referring to Dionysius of Halicarnassus. who call Pax Romana "hegemonic peace," use the term "hegemony" in its broader sense which includes both hegemony and empire.
From the 7th century to the 12th century, the Umayyad Caliphate and later Abbasid Caliphate dominated the vast territories they governed, with other states like the Byzantine Empire paying tribute.al-Tabari, The History of al-Tabari
In 7th-century India, Harsha, ruler of a large empire in northern India from AD 606 to 647, brought most of the north under his hegemony. He preferred not to rule as a central government, but left "conquered kings on their thrones and contenting himself with tribute and homage." Encyclopædia Britannica, "Harsha"
From the late 9th to the early 11th century, the empire developed by Charlemagne achieved hegemony in Europe, with dominance over France, most of Northern and Central Italy, Burgundy and Germany.Story, J. Charlemagne: Empire and Society, Manchester University Press, 2005, p. 193.
From the 11th to the late 15th century the Italian maritime republics, in particular Venice and Genoa held hegemony in the Mediterranean, dominating trade between Europe and the Orient for centuries, and having naval supremacy. However, with the arrival of the Age of Discovery and the early modern period, they began to gradually lose their hegemony to other European powers.
- Portugal 1494 to 1580 (From the end of the Italian Wars to Iberian Union). Based on Portugal's dominance in navigation.
- Habsburg Spain (From the accession of Charles I of Spain to the Treaty of the Pyrenees). Based on the Tercio and the global exploration and colonization of the New World.
- The Netherlands 1580 to 1688 (From the 1579 Treaty of Utrecht, which marks the foundation of the Dutch Republic, to the Glorious Revolution, William of Orange's arrival in England). Based on Dutch control of credit and money.
- France 1643 to 1763 (From the accession of Louis XIV to the end of the Seven Years' War).
- Britain 1688 to 1792 (From the Glorious Revolution to the start of the French Revolutionary Wars). Based on British textiles and command of the high seas.
- French Revolution and Napoleonic France (1789 to 1815).
- Britain 1815 to 1914 (From the Congress of Vienna to the start of the Great War). Based on British industrial supremacy and railroads.
Phillip IV tried to restore the Habsburg dominance but, by the middle of the 17th century "Spain's pretensions to hegemony (in Europe) had definitely and irremediably failed." Encyclopædia Britannica, "Phillip IV". Encyclopædia Britannica, "Spain under the Habsburgs".
In late 16th- and 17th-century Holland, the Dutch Republic's mercantilist dominion was an early instance of commercial hegemony, made feasible by the development of wind power for the efficient production and delivery of goods and services. This, in turn, made possible the Amsterdam stock market and concomitant dominance of world trade. Encyclopædia Britannica, "Colbert, Jean-Baptiste § Financial and economic affairs".
In France, King Louis XIV (1643–1715) and (Emperor) Napoleon I (1799–1815) attempted true French hegemony via economic, cultural and military domination of most of Continental Europe. However, Jeremy Black writes that, because of Britain, France "was unable to enjoy the benefits" of this hegemony.Black, J., Great Powers and the Quest for Hegemony: The World Order Since 1500, Routledge, 2007, p. 76. After the defeat and exile of Napoleon, hegemony largely passed to the British Empire, which became the largest empire in history, with Queen Victoria (1837–1901) ruling over one-quarter of the world's land and population at its zenith. Like the Dutch, the British Empire was primarily seaborne; many British possessions were located around the rim of the Indian Ocean, as well as numerous islands in the Pacific Ocean and the Caribbean Sea. Britain also controlled the Indian subcontinent and large portions of Africa.Porter, A., The Oxford History of the British Empire: Volume III: The Nineteenth Century, Oxford University Press, 1999, p. 258.
In Europe, Germany, rather than Britain, may have been the strongest power after 1871, but Samuel Newland writes:
Bismarck defined the road ahead as … no expansion, no push for hegemony in Europe. Germany was to be the strongest power in Europe but without being a hegemon. … His basic axioms were first, no conflict among major powers in Central Europe; and second, German security without German hegemony."
These fluctuations form the basis for cyclical theories by George Modelski and Joshua S. Goldstein, both of whom allege that naval power is vital for hegemony.
After the Second World War, the United Nations was established and the five strongest (China, France, the UK, the U.S., and the USSR) were given permanent seats on the UN Security Council, the organization's most powerful decision-making body.
Following the war, the U.S. and the USSR were the two strongest global powers and this created a bi-polar power dynamic in international affairs, commonly referred to as the Cold War. American hegemony during this time has been described as . The hegemonic conflict was ideological, between communism and capitalism, as well as geopolitical, between the Warsaw Pact countries (1955–1991) and NATO/SEATO/CENTO countries (1949–present/1954–1977/1955–1979). During the Cold War both hegemons competed against each other directly (during the arms race) and indirectly (via ). The result was that many countries, no matter how remote, were drawn into the conflict when it was suspected that their government's policies might destabilize the balance of power. Reinhard Hildebrandt calls this a period of "dual-hegemony", where "two dominant states have been stabilizing their European spheres of influence against and alongside each other."Hilderbrandt, R., US Hegemony: Global Ambitions and Decline : Emergence of the Interregional Asian Triangle and the Relegation of the US as a Hegemonic Power, the Reorientation of Europe, Peter Lang, 2009, p. 14. (Author's italics). Proxy wars became battle grounds between forces supported either directly or indirectly by the hegemonic powers and included the Korean War, the Laotian Civil War, the Arab–Israeli conflict, the Vietnam War, the Afghan War, the Angolan Civil War, and the Central American Civil Wars.Mumford, A., Proxy Warfare, John Wiley & Sons, 2013, pp. 46–51.
Following the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991, the United States was the world's sole hegemonic power.Hildebrandt, R., US Hegemony: Global Ambitions and Decline : Emergence of the Interregional Asian Triangle and the Relegation of the US as a Hegemonic Power, the Reorientation of Europe, Peter Lang, 2009, pp. 9–11.
The French Socialist politician Hubert Védrine in 1999 described the U.S. as a hegemonic hyperpower, because of its unilateral military actions worldwide.Reid, JIM., Religion and Global Culture: New Terrain in the Study of Religion and the Work of Charles H. Long, Lexington Books, 2004, p. 82. The US role is often described as hegemonic in NATO and other US-led military alliances. Many scholars use the term "hegemony" interchangeably or synonymously with "empire" or "World domination" and they are referred in the respective articles.
Pentagon strategist Edward Luttwak, in The Grand Strategy of the Roman Empire, The Grand Strategy of the Roman Empire: From the First Century AD to the Third, (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1976). outlined three stages, with hegemonic being the first, followed by imperial. In his view the transformation proved to be fatal and eventually led to the fall of the Roman Empire. His book gives implicit advice to Washington to continue the present hegemonic strategy and refrain from establishing an empire.
In 2006, author Zhu Zhiqun claimed that China is already on the way to becoming the world hegemon and that the focus should be on how a peaceful transfer of power can be achieved between the U.S. and China, but has faced opposition to this claim. According to the recent study published in 2019, the authors argued that a "third‐way hegemony" or Dutch‐style hegemony apart from a peaceful or violent hegemonic rise may be the most feasible option to describe Chinese Century in its global hegemony in the future.
The Russo-Georgian War was explicitly interpreted as an anti-hegemonic resistance by the Russian leading geopolitical thinker, Alexander Dugin: "Here is the border in the battle of civilizations. I think Americans are great. But we want to put an end to America's hegemony."Spiegel staff, (August 25, 2008). "The Chronicle of a Caucasian Tragedy," Spiegel
Following the annexations, Vladimir Putin stated that the breakdown of the Western hegemony passed the point of no return. The post-Cold War hegemonic world order will not be back.Мошкин, Михаил & Отрокова, Олеся (30 September 2022). “Путин объявил о начале слома гегемонии Запада.” Взгляд
A pamphlet published by the Chinese Ministry of Foreign Affairs in 2023 states the US hegemony as fact existing since the end of the Cold War, and claims that the US consistent abuse of its hegemony imperils the world.
According to Michael Ignatieff, both China and Russia may believe that there will never be a more opportune moment to overthrow American hegemony.Ignatieff, Michael (March 5, 2024). "The threat to American Hegemony is real,"
In the early 20th century, the Italian Marxist philosopher Antonio Gramsci used the idea of hegemony to talk about politics within a given society. He developed the theory of cultural hegemony, an analysis of economic class (including social class) and how the ruling class uses consent as well as force to maintain its power. Hence, the philosophic and sociologic theory of cultural hegemony analysed the social norms that established the to impose their Weltanschauung (world view)—justifying the social, political, and economic status quo—as natural, inevitable, and beneficial to every social class, rather than as artificial social constructs beneficial solely to the ruling class.
From the Gramsci analysis derived the political science denotation of hegemony as leadership; thus, the historical example of Prussia as the militarily and culturally predominant province of the German Empire (1871–1918); and the personal and intellectual predominance of Napoleon I upon the French Consulate (1799–1804).
The English school of international relations takes a broader view of history. The research of Adam Watson was world-historical in scope. For him, hegemony was the most common order in history (historical "optimum") because many provinces of "frank" empires were under hegemonic rather than imperial rule. Watson summarized his life-long research: There was a spectrum of political systems ranging between multiple independent states and universal empire. The further a political system evolved towards one of the extremes, the greater was the gravitational pull towards the hegemonic center of the spectrum.Watson, Adam (1992). The Evolution of International Society: A Comparative Historical Analysis, (London: Routledge), pp. 122–125, 131–132, 324.
Hegemony may take different forms. Benevolent hegemons provide public goods to the countries within their sphere of influence. Coercive hegemons exert their economic or military power to discipline unruly or free-riding countries in their sphere of influence. Exploitative hegemonies extract resources from other countries.See Snidal, Duncan (1985). "The Limits of Hegemonic Stability Theory." International Organization 39 (4): pp. 580–614.Grunberg, Isabelle (1990). "Exploring the ‘Myth' of Hegemonic Stability." International Organization 44 (4): 431–477.
A prominent theory in International Relations focusing on the role of hegemonies is hegemonic stability theory. Its premise is that a hegemonic power is necessary to develop and uphold a stable international political and economic order. The theory was developed in the 1970s by Robert GilpinGilpin, Robert (1975). U.S. Power and the Multinational Corporation. New York: Basic Books. and Stephen D. Krasner,Krasner, Stephen D. (1976). "State Power and the Structure of International Trade." World Politics 28 (3): 317–347. among others. It has been criticized on both conceptual and empirical grounds. For example, Robert Keohane has argued that the theory is not a proper theory because it amounts to a series of allegedly redundant claims that apparently could not be used predictively.Keohane, Robert O. (1984). After Hegemony: Cooperation and Discord in the World Political Economy. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
A number of International Relations scholars have examined the decline of hegemons and their orders. For some, such decline tends to be disruptive because the stability that the hegemon provided gives way to a power vacuum.Kindleberger, Charles P. (1981). "Dominance and Leadership in the International Economy." International Studies Quarterly 25: 242–254.Gilpin, Robert (1981). War and Change in World Politics. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press). Others have maintained that cooperation may persist in the face of hegemonic decline because of institutions or enhanced contributions from non-hegemonic powers.Snidal, Duncan (1985). "The Limits of Hegemonic Stability Theory." International Organization 39 (4): 580–614.
There has been a long debate in the field about whether American hegemony is in decline. As early as in the 1970s, Robert Gilpin suggested that the global order maintained by the United States would eventually decline as benefits from the public goods provided by Washington would diffuse to other states. In the 1980s, some scholars singled out Japan's economic growth and technological sophistication as a threat to U.S. primacy.Vogel, Ezra (1986). "Pax Nipponica." Foreign Affairs 64 (4): 752–767. More recently, analysts have focused on the economic and military rise of China and its challenge to U.S. hegemony.Schweller, Randall L., and Xiaoyu Pu (2011). "After Unipolarity: China's Vision of International Order in an Era of U.S. Decline." International Security 36 (1): 41–72.
Scholars differ as to whether bipolarity or unipolarity is likely to produce the most stable and peaceful outcomes. Kenneth Waltz and John Mearsheimer are among those who argue that bipolarity tends to generate relatively more stability, whereas John Ikenberry and William Wohlforth are among those arguing for the stabilizing impact of unipolarity. Some scholars, such as Karl Deutsch and J. David Singer argued that multipolarity was the most stable structure.
Scholars disagree about the sources and stability of U.S. unipolarity. Realist international relations scholars argue that unipolarity is rooted in the superiority of U.S. material power since the end of the Cold War. Liberal international relations scholar John Ikenberry attributes U.S. hegemony in part to what he says are commitments and self-restraint that the United States established through the creation of international institutions (such as the United Nations, International Monetary Fund, World Bank, and World Trade Organization). Constructivist scholar Martha Finnemore argues that legitimation and institutionalization are key components of unipolarity.
Culturally, hegemony also is established by means of language, specifically the imposed lingua franca of the hegemon (leader state), which then is the official source of information for the people of the society of the sub-ordinate state. Writing on language and power, Andrea Mayr says, "As a practice of power, hegemony operates largely through language."Mayr, A., Language and Power: An Introduction to Institutional Discourse, A&C Black, 2008, p. 14. In contemporary society, an example of the use of language in this way is in the way Western countries set up educational systems in African countries mediated by Western languages.Clayton, T., Rethinking Hegemony, James Nicholas Publishers, 2006, pp. 202–03.
Suggested examples of cultural imperialism include the latter-stage Spanish Empire, French and , the 19th- and 20th-century of unified Germany (1871–1945), As well as p. 145: "Unified Germany was achieving the strength to dominate Europe all by itself—an occurrence which Great Britain had always resisted in the past when it came about by conquest". and by the end of the 20th century, the United States.
/ref> For another observer from an Italian think tank, the War marked a turning point from the hegemonic order the US tried to enforce for the first two post-Cold War decades.Vielmini, Fabrizio (2008). "The Systemic Impact of the Five-Day War in Georgia,"
/ref> A decade later, the Russo-Georgian War became widely recognized as a landmark event, inviting Russia to acts of ever bolder anti-hegemonic policy.Dickinson, Peter (August 7, 2021). "The 2008 Russo-Georgian War: Putin’s green light,"
/ref>Kagan, Robert (May/June 2022). "The price of Hegemony: Can America learn to use its power?" Foreign Affairs
/ref>Bacevich, Andrew J. (April 16, 2022). "Robert Kagan: American passivity led to the Russia-Ukraine crisis,"
/ref> In 2014, Russia conquered and annexed Crimea, and in 2022 launched a full-scale invasion of Ukraine and annexed four more Ukrainian regions. The Russian successful, in the view of Glenn Diesen, invasion became the "graveyard of liberal hegemony."Diesen, Glenn (2024). The Ukraine War & the Eurasian World Order. (Clarity Press), p 273.
/ref> He often justifies the ongoing war with Ukraine as an anti-hegemonic struggle and calls a wider international community to join this struggle. Meduza (2024). "Путин хочет возглавить борьбу против ‘глобального гегемона,’"
/ref>Ye Hee Lee, Michelle & Dixon, Robyn (19 June 2024). "North Korea’s Kim declares ‘full support’ for Russian war in Ukraine." The Washington Post
/ref> The anti-hegemonic rhetoric characterized his political speeches in 2022-2024.Putin, Vladimir (7 November 2024). “Путин: никакой гегемонии в новой системе мироустройства быть не может.”
/ref> Международная Жизнь (7 June 2024), "Путин: западные страны стараются всеми силами сохранить роль гегемонов."
/ref>Пескова, Валентина (28 Июля 2023). "Путин указал на сопротивление отдельных стран при потере их гегемонии в мире." Известия
/ref> Two days after Donald Trump was reelected, Putin celebrated the "crumbling hegemonic world." The mainstream of history is reverse to the strivings of the West, from the declining hegemonic world to the rising diversity. "No hegemony can be a consideration in the new international environment."Putin, Vladimir (7 November 2024). “Путин выступил на заседании дискуссионного клуба "Валдай". Полный текст.” 21st annual Valdai session,
/ref> Following the humiliation of Volodymyr Zelenskyy in Washington and the turmoil caused by the new tariffs policy and expansionist proposals of Trump toward the US allies, Russian official agencies celebrated victory over the hegemony. "Putin quietly finished the Hegemon off," was one newspaper title. This geopolitical victory, it says, is underestimated as Putin has attained what earlier had seemed fantastic. The myth of the Western unity crumbled. Russia launched this process when it stood up to defend its sovereignty from the hegemony.Editorial (9 April 2025). “Путин добил «гегемона» в тишине: тайный триумф Кремля, который Запад еще не понял.” Московский Комсомолец
/ref>
/ref> The Ministry referred to a composition of US military interventions by country. This composition omits three countries (of 194 UN member states) where the United States was not militarily involved: Andorra, Liechtenstein and Bhutan.Kelly, Christopher & Laycock, Stuart (2014). America Invades: How We've Invaded or Been Militarily Involved with Almost Every Country on Earth
/ref> The Ministry supposed that they were "spared because the United States did not find them on the map.” Chinese official agencies frequently publish such anti-hegemonic pamphlets.Bloomberg News (20 February 2023). “China blasts US for military, cultural ‘hegemony’ as ties sour.” Bloomberg.com
/ref>
/ref> He said it in 2024. Never Say Never sings Ignatieff’s compatriot. In a year, the moment went more opportune. Donald Trump came to power, adopted a more pro-Russian line, halted aid to Ukraine and Taiwan, and took a more aggressive attitude towards other allies including Canada. With “uneasy feeling” of facing “Anschluss,” Ignatieff found the moment opportune for designing an anti-hegemonic “common front” with Europe and Latin America.Ignatieff, Michael & Rachman, Gideon (16 January 2025). “Transcript: Does the Trump administration pose an existential threat to Canada?” Financial Times
/ref>
Political science
In the historical writing of the 19th century, the denotation of hegemony extended to describe the predominance of one country upon other countries; and, by extension, hegemonism denoted the Great Power politics (c. 1880s – 1914) for establishing hegemony (indirect imperial rule), that then leads to a definition of imperialism (direct foreign rule).
Chris Cook (1983). 033344972X, MacMillan. 033344972X Contemporarily, in Hegemony and Socialist Strategy (1985), Ernesto Laclau and Chantal Mouffe defined hegemony as a political relationship of power wherein a sub-ordinate society (collectivity) perform social tasks that are culturally unnatural and not beneficial to them, but that are in exclusive benefit to the Imperialism interests of the hegemon, the superior, ordinate power; hegemony is a military, political, and economic relationship that occurs as an articulation within political discourse. Beyer analysed the contemporary hegemony of the United States at the example of the Global War on Terrorism and presented the mechanisms and processes of American exercise of power in 'hegemonic governance'.
International relations
In the field of international relations, hegemony generally refers to the ability of an actor to shape the international system. Usually this actor is a state, such as British Empire in the 19th century or the United States in the 20th century. A hegemon may shape the international system through coercive and non-coercive means.Norrloff, Carla (2019). "Hegemony," Oxford Bibliographies
/ref> According to Nuno Monteiro, hegemony is distinct from unipolarity. The latter refers to a preponderance of power within an anarchic system, whereas the former refers to a hierarchical system where the most powerful state has the ability to "control the external behavior of all other states."
Sociology
Academics have argued that in the praxis of hegemony, imperial dominance is established by means of cultural imperialism, whereby the leader state (hegemon) dictates the internal politics and the societal character of the subordinate states that constitute the hegemonic sphere of influence, either by an internal, sponsored government or by an external, installed government. The imposition of the hegemon's way of life—an imperial lingua franca and Bureaucracy (social, economic, educational, governing)—transforms the concrete imperialism of direct military domination into the abstract Political power of the status quo, indirect imperial domination.Bush, B., Imperialism and Postcolonialism, Routledge, 2014, p. 123. J. Brutt-Griffler, a critic of this view, has described it as "deeply condescending" and "treats people ... as blank slates on which global capitalism's moving finger writes its message, leaving behind another cultural automaton as it moves on."Brutt-Griffler, J., in Karlfried Knapp, Barbara Seidlhofer, H. G. Widdowson, Handbook of Foreign Language Communication and Learning, Walter de Gruyter, 2009, p. 264.
Media studies
Adopted from the work of Gramsci and Stuart Hall, hegemony with respect to media studies refers to individuals or concepts that become most dominant in a culture. Building on Gramsci's ideas, Hall stated that the media is a critical institution for furthering or inhibiting hegemony.
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