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The chestnuts are the deciduous trees and in the genus Castanea, in the beech family Fagaceae. The name also refers to the edible nuts they produce. They are native to temperate regions of the Northern Hemisphere.
The Chinese and more so the Japanese chestnuts are both often multileadered and wide-spreading, whereas European and especially American species tend to grow very erect when planted among others, with little tapering of their columnar trunks, which are firmly set and massive. When standing on their own, they spread on the sides and develop broad, rounded, dense crowns at maturity. The leaf of the European and American species has striking yellow autumn coloring. Autumn Foliage Color:Past, Present, and Future. Harvard University.
Its bark is smooth when young, The American Chestnut Tree. By Samuel B. Detwiler. Reprinted from American Forestry, October, 1915. Chattooga Conservancy. of a vinous maroon or red-brown color for the American chestnut, grey for the European chestnut. With age, American species' bark becomes grey and darker, thick, and deeply ; the furrows run longitudinally, and tend to twist around the trunk as the tree ages, sometimes reminiscent of a large cable with twisted strands.
The leaves are simple, ovate or lanceolate, long and wide, with sharply pointed, widely spaced teeth, with shallow rounded sinuates between. Chestnut in Answers.com.
The follow the leaves, appearing in late spring or early summer or into July. They are arranged in long of two kinds, with both kinds being borne on every tree. Some catkins are made of only male flowers, which mature first. Each flower has eight , or 10 to 12 for C. mollissima. The ripe pollen carries a heavy, sweet odor that some people find too sweet or unpleasant. Other catkins have these pollen-bearing flowers, but also carry near the twig from which these spring, small clusters of female or fruit-producing flowers. Two or three flowers together form a four-lobed prickly calybium, which ultimately grows completely together to make the brown hull, or husk, covering the fruits.
Chestnut flowers are not self-compatible, so two trees are required for pollination. All Castanea species readily hybridize with each other.
The chestnut fruit has a pointed end with a small tuft at its tip (called "flame" in Italian language), and at the other end, a hilum – a pale brown attachment scar. In many varieties, the fruit is flattened on one or two sides. It has two skins. The first one is a hard, shiny, brown outer hull or husk, called the pericarpus; Chestnut Know-How . By David McLaren. Written for Chestnut Australia Inc. 1999. the industry calls this the "peel". Underneath the pericarpus is another, thinner skin, called the pellicle or episperm. The pellicle closely adheres to the seed itself, following the grooves usually present at the surface of the fruit. These grooves are of variable sizes and depths according to the species and variety.
The fruit inside these shows a germ with two connected to creamy-white flesh throughout. What Are Chestnuts. Information page by a small Australian grower in Balingup, Western Australia. Some varieties have consistently only one embryo per fruit (nut) or have only one large fruit per burr, well rounded (no flat face). The name of varieties with these characteristics may start with "marron" for example marron de Lyon in France, or Marrone di Mugello in Italy.
Chestnut fruit may not exhibit epigeal dormancy. It may germinate right upon falling to the ground in the autumn, with the roots emerging from the seed right away and the leaves and stem the following spring. The germ can lose viability soon after ripening and under drying conditions.
The superior fruiting varieties among European chestnuts have good size, sweet taste, and easy-to-remove inner skins. American chestnuts are usually very small (around ), but sweet-tasting with easy-to-remove pellicles. Some Japanese varieties have very large nuts (around ), with typically difficult-to-remove pellicles. Chinese chestnut pellicles are usually easy to remove, and their sizes vary greatly according to the varieties, although usually smaller than the Japanese chestnut.
The taxonomy of the American chestnuts is not completely resolved, particularly between the chinkapins (Castanea ozarkensis and Castanea pumila), which are sometimes considered to be the same species. Genetics have indicated the California native "golden chinkapin" (Chrysolepis chrysophylla) is worthy of inclusion in a different genus along with a species from Coastal China. There is also another chestnut, Castanea alabamensis, which may be its own species.
| Castanea pumila | American or Allegheny chinkapin, also known as "dwarf chestnut" | Southern and eastern United States The Grocer's Encyclopedia – Encyclopedia of Foods and Beverages. By Artemas Ward. New York. 1911. Postharvest Physiology and Pathology of Chestnuts. In Postharvest Handling and Storage of Chestnuts. By Fabio Mencarelli. Food and Agriculture Organisation United Nations. November 2001. | |
| Castanea ozarkensis | Ozark chinkapin | Southeastern and Midwestern United States | |
| Castanea henryi | Chinese chinkapin, also called Henry's chestnut | China | |
| Castanea seguinii | Seguin's chestnut | China | |
| Castanea crenata | Japanese chestnut, Korean chestnut | Korean Peninsula and Japan | |
The name is cited twice in the King James Version of the Bible. In one instance, Jacob puts peeled twigs in the water troughs to promote healthy offspring of his livestock. Vegetarians in Paradise . Although it may indicate another tree, it indicates the fruit was a local staple food in the early 17th century. Chestnut Tree.
These synonyms are or have been in use: Fagus Castanea (used by Linnaeus in first edition of Species Plantarum, 1753), On the Name of the American Chestnut. By Geo. B. Sudworth. Bulletin of the Torrey Botanical Club, Vol. 19, No. 5 (May 5, 1892), pp. 152–154 (article consists of 3 pages). Published by: Torrey Botanical Society. Sardian nut, Jupiter's nut, husked nut, and Spanish chestnut (U.S.). A Modern Herbal. By Mrs. M. Grieve.
In Britain, boundary records compiled in the reign of King John already showed the famous Tortworth Chestnut in South Gloucestershire, as a landmark; it was also known by the same name of "Great Chestnut of Tortworth" in the days of Stephen. This tree measured over in circumference at from the ground in 1720. The Hundred Horse Chestnut in the chestnut forests on Mount Etna is the oldest living chestnut tree and is said to be even larger. Chestnut trees particularly flourish in the Mediterranean basin. In 1584, the governor of Genoa, which dominated Corsica, ordered all the farmers and landowners to plant four trees yearly, among which was a chestnut tree – plus olive, Ficus carica and mulberry trees. Many communities owe their origin and former richness to the ensuing chestnut woods. The Chestnut Tree in terracorsa. In France, the marron glacé, a candied chestnut involving 16 different processes in a typically French cooking style, is always served at Christmas and New Year's time. In Modena, Italy, they are soaked in wine before roasting and serving, and are also traditionally eaten on Saint Simon's Day in Tuscany. In the Romagna region, are often served with a traditional wine, the Cagnina di Romagna. It is traditional to eat roasted chestnuts in Portugal on St. Martin's Day.
Their popularity declined during the last few centuries, partly due to their reputation of "food for poor people". Traitement des maladies par les légumes, les fruits et les céréales. By Dr Jean Valnet. Ed. Maloine s.a., 1977, pp. 213 to 216. First published in 1964. . Translated in English as Organic garden medicine – The medical uses of vegetables, fruits and grains, Ed. Erbonia Books Inc., New York. Many people did not want to take chestnut bread as "bread" because chestnut flour does not rise. Some slandered chestnut products in such words as the bread which "gives a sallow complexion" written in 1770, Dictionnaire universel des plantes, arbres et arbustes de la France: 126. By Pierre-Joseph Buc'hoz. Paris. 1770. or in 1841 "this kind of mortar which is called a soup". Voyage dans la Belgique, la Hollande et l'Italie (1796–1798): 173. By André Thouin. Paris. 1841. The last decades' worldwide renewal may have profited from the huge reforestation efforts started in the 1930s in the United States to establish varieties of C. sativa which may be resistant to chestnut blight, as well as to relieve the strain on cereal supplies.
The main region in Italy for chestnut production is the Mugello region; in 1996, the European Community granted the fruit Protected Geographic Indication (equivalent to the French Appellation d'Origine Contrôlée) status to the Mugello sweet chestnut. It is markedly sweet, peels easily, is not excessively floury or astringent, and has notes of vanilla, hazelnut, and, more subtly, fresh bread. It has no unpleasant aroma, such as yeast, fungus, mold, or paper, which sometimes occur with other chestnuts. The IGP Mugello Sweet Chestnut. The main regions in France for chestnut production are the départements of Ardèche, Var (Eastern Provence), Cévennes (Gard and Lozère départements) and the Lyon region. France annually produces over 1,000 metric tons, but still imports about 8,000 metric tons, mainly from Italy. Candied chestnuts (in French).
In Portugal's archipelago of Madeira, chestnut liquor is a traditional beverage, and it is gaining popularity with the tourists and in continental Portugal.
During British colonial rule in the mid-1700s to 1947, the sweet chestnut, C. sativa, was widely introduced in the temperate parts of the Indian subcontinent, mainly in the lower to middle Himalayas. They are widely found in British-founded hill stations in northern India, and to a lesser extent in Bhutan and Nepal. They are mainly used as an ornamental tree and are found in almost all British-founded botanical gardens and official governmental compounds (such as larger official residences) in temperate parts of the Indian subcontinent.
China has about 300 chestnut . Moreover, the 'Dandong' chestnut (belonging to the Japanese chestnut C. crenata) is a major cultivar in Liaoning. Economic forest trees .
In South Korea, roasted chestnuts ( gunbam) are a popular winter snack, and serve as a symbol of abundance in ancestral rituals. Roasted chestnuts are also included in folk songs of Korea, which include , a song that celebrates chestnuts, as well as " Jeongseokga", a song from the Goryeo period. Gongju, one of Baekje's former capitals, is renowned for its chestnuts, with an annual chestnut festival that takes place in the winter. In the Samgukji (Records Of The Three Kingdoms), a book that was compiled during the Jin dynasty about the Three Kingdoms, chestnuts are used in the description of Mahan, the former land of Baekje.
In the Philippines, the endemic talakatak or Philippine chestnut ( Castanopsis philippinensis) is not cultivated commercially, though its nuts are harvested from the wild and consumed locally. Imported chestnuts (known as kastanyas in Tagalog language, from Spanish language castañas) are traditionally sold as street food in the Philippines during the Christmas season.
Soon after that, however, the American chestnuts were nearly wiped out by chestnut blight. The discovery of the blight fungus on some Asian chestnut trees planted on Long Island, New York, was made public in 1904. Within 40 years, the nearly four billion-strong American chestnut population in North America was devastated; The American Chestnut Foundation – Mission & History . only a few clumps of trees remained in Michigan, Wisconsin, California, and the Pacific Northwest. Due to disease, American chestnut wood almost disappeared from the market for decades, although quantities can still be obtained as reclaimed lumber. Trees, Woods and Man. By H.L. Edlin. New Naturalist. 1970. . Today, they only survive as single trees separated from any others (very rare), and as , or "stools", with only a few growing enough shoots to produce seeds shortly before dying. This is just enough to preserve the genetic material used to engineer an American chestnut tree with the minimal necessary genetic input from any of the disease-immune Asiatic species. Efforts started in the 1930s are still ongoing to repopulate the country with these trees, in Massachusetts and many places elsewhere in the United States. American Chestnut Foundation. In the 1970s, geneticist Charles Burnham began back-breeding Asian chestnut into American chestnut populations to confer blight resistance with the minimum difference in genes. In the 1950s, the Dunstan chestnut was developed in Greensboro, N.C., and constitutes the majority of blight-free chestnuts produced in the United States annually.
Today, the demand for the nut outstrips supply. The United States imported 4,056 metric tons of European in-shell chestnuts worth $10 million in 2007. Agricultural Marketing Resource Center: Chestnuts. By Malinda Geisler, content specialist, Agricultural Marketing Resource Center, Iowa State University. Revised May 2008. The U.S. chestnut industry is in its infancy, producing less than 1% of total world production. Since the mid-20th century, most of the US imports are from Southern Italy, with the large, meaty, and richly flavored Sicily chestnuts being considered among the best quality for bulk sale and supermarket retail. Some imports come from Portugal and France. The next two largest sources of imports are China and South Korea. The French varieties of marrons are highly favored and sold at high prices in gourmet shops. As of 2024, the United States imports 7.5 million pounds of non-organic chestnuts per year.
A study of the sector in 2005 found that U.S. producers are mainly part-timers diversifying an existing agricultural business, or hobbyists. Another recent study indicates that investment in a new plantation takes 13 years to break even, at least within the current Australian market. Chestnut production . By David McLaren. Written from The Chestnut Growers Information Book, for Chestnut Australia Inc. 1999 for Chestnut Australia Inc. 1999. Starting a small-scale operation requires a relatively low initial investment; this is a factor in the small size of the present production operations, with half of them being between . Another determining factor in the small productivity of the sector is that most orchards have been created less than 10 years ago, so have young trees which are as now barely entering commercial production. Assuming a yield for a 10-year-old tree is a reliable conservative estimate, though some exceptional specimens of that age have yielded . So, most producers earn less than $5,000 per year, with a third of them not having sold anything so far.
Moreover, the plantings have so far been mostly of Chinese species, but the products are not readily available. The American Chestnut Foundation in collaboration with many partners (SUNY ESF, the American Chestnut Cooperators' Foundation and many others from education, research, and industry sectors contributing to the program) are in the last stages of developing a variety that is as close as possible to the American chestnut, while having incorporated the blight-resistant gene of the Asiatic species. Considering the additional advantage that chestnut trees can be easily grown organically, and assuming the development of brands in the market and everything else being equal, home-grown products would reach higher prices than imports, the high volume of which indicates a market with expanding prospects. As of 2008, the price for chestnuts sold fresh in the shell ranges from $1.50/lb ($3.30/kg) wholesale to about $5/lb ($11/kg) retail, depending mainly on the size.
Trees can be found at altitudes between 200 and above sea level; some mention between 300 and altitude, Étude d'un produit régional: La crème de marrons. By Sabrina Derouet, Flavie Dhellemmes, Lamia Hakam, Claire Lhaoucine and Maxime Vanhoutte. EPU Lille-USTL. 2003. while the famous Hundred Horse Chestnut on Mount Etna stands at 1200 metres. The Chestnut tree of Mount Etna. Detailed account of the tree, its state and its surroundings, written by Wm. Rushton on June 29, 1871. They can tolerate maritime exposure, although growth is reduced.
Seeds germination in late winter or early spring, but the life length is short. If kept moist, they can be stored in a cool place for a few months, but must be checked regularly for signs of germination. Low temperature prolongs dormancy. Sowing them as soon as ripe is better, either in or outdoors, Propagation of Trees, Shrubs and Conifers. By W. G. Sheat. MacMillan and Co 1948. Cited in Plants for a Future. where they can be left in situ for one to two years before being planted in their permanent positions, or in pots, where the plants can be put out into their permanent positions in summer or autumn. They must be protected from the cold in their first winter, and also from mouse and .
Chestnuts are considered self-sterile, Sweet Chestnut ( Castanea species). Society of Ontario Nut Growers. so at least two trees are needed for pollination.
Although Castanea can grow in very acidic soil, and while these soils are reasonably well tolerated, the preferred range is from pH 5.5-6.0. It does not grow well on alkaline soils, such as chalk, but thrives on soils such as those derived from granite, sandstone, or schist. On alkaline soils, chestnut trees can be grown by grafting them onto oak rootstocks.
Wide spacing between the trees encourages low, broad crowns with maximum exposure to sunshine to increase fruit production. Where chestnut trees touch, virtually no fruit is produced. Current orchard can range from 7 x 7 to 20 x . The closer plantings, which are more popular, mean quicker increases in short-term production, but heavy pruning or even tree removal is required later.
Independently from annual rainfall, watering young trees is recommended at least during summer and early autumn. Once established, they resist well. Encyclopaedia of Herbs and their Uses. By D. Bown. Dorling Kindersley, London. 1995 . RHS Dictionary of Plants plus Supplement. By F. Chittendon. 1956 Oxford University Press 1951.
In some areas, sweet chestnut trees are called "bread trees". The Chestnut – Fruit of the Bread Tree. Rockridge Market Hall. When chestnuts are just starting to Ripening, the fruits are mostly starch and are firm under finger pressure from the high water content. As the chestnuts ripen, the starch is slowly converted into sugars, and moisture content decreases. Upon pressing the ripe chestnut, a slight "give" can be felt; the husk is not so tense, and space occurs between the flesh of the fruit and it. Delmarvelous nursery (Chestnut Trees & Seed Nuts).
Raw chestnuts are 60% water and contain 44 grams of , 2 grams of protein, one gram of fat, supplying 200 in a 100-gram reference amount (table). Chestnuts provide some B vitamins and in significant content (table).
Their carbohydrate content compares with that of wheat and rice. Chestnuts have twice as much starch as the potato on an as-is basis. They contain about 8% of various , mainly sucrose, glucose, fructose, and in lesser amounts, stachyose and raffinose, which are fermented in the lower gut, producing gas.
Chestnuts are among the few "nuts" that contain vitamin C, with 48% of the Daily Value in a 100-gram serving (table). The amount of vitamin C decreases by roughly 40% upon heating (typically, the vitamin is decreased or destroyed in heated foods). Fresh chestnuts contain about 52% water by weight, which evaporates relatively quickly during storage. They can lose as much as 1% of weight in one day at 20 °C (68 °F) and 70% relative humidity.]]
Another method of eating the fruit involves roasting, which does not require peeling. Roasting requires scoring the fruit beforehand to prevent explosion of the fruit due to expansion. Once cooked, its texture is slightly similar to that of a baked potato, with a delicate, sweet, and nutty flavour. Sweet Chestnut Jam recipe. Storing Sweet Chestnuts, in The Cottage Smallholder. This method of preparation is popular in many countries, where the scored chestnuts may be cooked mixed with a little sugar.
Chestnuts can be dried and milled into flour, which can then be used to prepare breads, , Chestnut pie, , , polenta (known in Corsica as pulenda), or used as thickener for , , and . Chestnut cake may be prepared using chestnut flour. In Corsica, the flour is fried into doughnut-like called fritelli and made into neccio, pattoni, , and cialdi. Volume 14 1880 Scribners monthly page 628 The flour can be light beige like that from Castagniccia, or darker in other regions. It is a good solution for long storage of a nutritious food. Chestnut bread can stay fresh as long as two weeks.
The nuts can also be eaten candied, boiled, steamed, deep-fried, grilled, or roasted in sweet or savory recipes. They can be used to stuff vegetables, poultry, fowl, and other edibles. They are available fresh, dried, ground, or canned (whole or in puree).
Candied chestnuts (whole chestnuts candied in sugar syrup, then iced) are sold under the French name marrons glacés or Turkish name kestane şekeri ("sugared chestnuts"). They appeared in France in the sixteenth century. Toward the end of nineteenth century, Lyon went into a recession with the collapse of the textile market, notably silk. Clément Faugier, a civil engineer, was looking for a way to revitalize the regional economy. In 1882 at Privas, he invented the technology to make marrons glacés on an industrial scale (although a great number of the more than 20 necessary steps from harvest to the finished product are still accomplished manually). Chestnuts are picked in autumn, and candied from the start of the following summer for the ensuing Christmas. Thus, the marrons glacés eaten at Christmas are those picked the year before. "C'est le mois – Les marrons glacés synonymes de fêtes de fin d'année". By Marie-Françoise Briand. Article in review n° 110. In French.
In Spain, on 31 October on the eve of the All Saints' Day, Catalonia celebrates la castanyada, a festivity that consists of eating chestnuts, panellets, sweet potatoes and muscatell. On November, in the regions of Galicia, Asturias, Cantabria and other Northern provinces and Portugal, the Magosto is celebrated.
In Hungarian cuisine, cooked chestnuts are puréed, mixed with sugar (and usually rum), forced through a Potato ricer, and topped with whipped cream to make a dessert called gesztenyepüré (chestnut purée). Gesztenyepüré at Chew.hu In Swiss cuisine, a similar dish made with kirsch and butter is called vermicelles. A French cuisine version is known as "Mont Blanc".
A fine granular sugar can be obtained from the fermentation of the juice,Facciola, S. Cornucopia – A Source Book of Edible Plants. Kampong Publications, 1990. . Cited in Plants for a Future. as well as a beer; the roasted fruit provides a coffee substitute. Parmentier, who among other things was a famous potato promoter, extracted sugar from chestnuts and sent a chestnut sugarloaf weighing several pounds to the Academy of Lyon.Antoine Parmentier. Traité de la châtaigne. 1780. Bastia, Corsica. Cited in The Cambridge World History of Food – Chestnuts, edited by Kenneth F. Kipple and Kriemhild Connee Ornelas. The continental blockade following shortly after (1806–1814) increased the research into developing chestnuts as a source of sugar, but Napoleon chose instead. The Cambridge World History of Food – Chestnuts. Edited by Kenneth F. Kipple and Kriemhild Connee Ornelas.
Sweet chestnuts are not easy to peel when cold. One kilogram of untainted chestnuts yields about 700 g of shelled chestnuts.
Chestnut timber is decorative. Light brown in color, it is sometimes confused with oak wood. The two woods' textures are similar. When in a growing stage, with very little sap wood, a chestnut tree contains more timber of a durable quality than an oak of the same dimensions. Young chestnut wood has proved more durable than oak for woodwork that has to be partly in the ground, such as stakes and fences.
After most growth is achieved, older chestnut timber tends to split and warp when harvested. The timber becomes neither so hard nor so strong as oak. The American chestnut C. dentata served as an important source of lumber, because it has long, unbranched trunks. In Britain, chestnut was formerly used indiscriminately with oak for the construction of houses, millwork, and household furniture. It grows so freely in Britain that it was long considered a truly native species, partly because the roof of Westminster Hall and the Parliament House of Edinburgh were mistakenly thought to be constructed of chestnut wood. Chestnut wood, however, loses much of its durability when the tree is more than 50 years old, and despite the local chestnut's quick growth rate, the timber used for these two buildings is considerably larger than a 50-year-old chestnut's girth. It has been proven that the roofs of these buildings are made of Sessile Oak, which closely resembles chestnut in Wood grain and color.
It is therefore uncommon to find large pieces of chestnut in building structures, but it has always been highly valued for small outdoor furniture pieces, fencing, cladding (Roof shingle) for covering buildings, and pit-props, for which durability is an important factor. In Italy, chestnut is also used to make used for aging balsamic vinegar and some alcoholic beverages, such as whisky or lambic beer. Of note, the famous 18th-century "berles" in the French Cévennes are cupboards cut directly from the hollowed trunk. Chestnut museum in the Beaumedrobie country – France
Hydrolysable chestnut tannins can be used for partial phenol substitution in phenolic resin adhesives production and also for direct use as resin.Peña, C.; De La Caba, K.; Retegi, A.; Ocando, C.; Labidi J. and J. M. Echeverria. "Mimosa and chestnut tannin extracts reacted with hexamine in solution". Mondragon. Journal of Thermal Analysis and Calorimetry, Volume 96, issue 2 (May 2009), pp. 515–521.
Chestnut buds have been listed as one of the 38 substances used to prepare Bach flower remedies, a kind of alternative medicine promoted for its effect on health. However, according to Cancer Research UK, "there is no scientific evidence to prove that flower remedies can control, cure or prevent any type of disease, including cancer".
Asia
Always served as part of the New Year's menu in Japan, chestnuts represent both success and hard times—mastery and strength. The Japanese chestnut ( kuri) was in cultivation before rice Japanese Chestnut in Japan House and the Chinese chestnut ( C. mollissima) possibly for 2,000 to 6,000 years.
(1990). 9789711341107, Bookmark. ISBN 9789711341107
North America
Native Americans were eating the American chestnut species, mainly C. dentata and some others, long before European immigrants introduced their stock to America, and before the arrival of chestnut blight. In some places, such as the Appalachian Mountains, one-quarter of were chestnuts. Mature trees often grew straight and branch-free for , up to , averaging up to in diameter. For three centuries, most and homes east of the Mississippi River were made from it.. Salem Board & Beam. In 1911, the food book The Grocer's Encyclopedia noted that a cannery in Holland included in its "vegetables-and-meat" ready-cooked combinations, a "chestnuts and sausages" casserole beside the more classic "beef and onions" and "green peas and veal". This celebrated the chestnut culture that would bring whole villages out in the woods for three weeks each autumn (and keep them busy all winter), and deplored the lack of food diversity in the United States's shop shelves.
Australia and New Zealand
The Australian gold rush of the 1850s and 1860s led to the first recorded plantings of European chestnut trees, brought from Europe by settlers. Along the years, most chestnut tree plantations were C. sativa stock, which is still the dominant species. Some of these remain today. Some trees in northern Victoria are around 120 years old and up to 60 m tall. Chestnuts grow well in southwest Western Australia, which has cold winters and warm to hot summers. As of 2008, the country has nearly 350 growers, annually producing around 1,200 metric tons of chestnuts, of which 80% come from northeast Victoria. The produce is mostly sold to the domestic fresh fruit market. Chestnuts are slowly gaining popularity in Australia. A considerable increase in production is expected in the next 10 years, due to the increase in commercial plantings during the last 15 to 25 years. By far, the most common species in Australia is the European chestnut, but small numbers of the other species, as well as some hybrids, have been planted. The Japanese chestnut ( C. crenata) does well in wet and humid weather and in hot summers (about 30 °C); and was introduced to New Zealand in the early 1900s, more so in the upper North Island region.
Cultivation ecology
Climate and seasonal germination cycle
Chestnuts produce a better crop when subjected to chill temperatures during the dormancy period. Frosts and snowfalls are beneficial rather than harmful to the trees. The dormant plant is very cold-hardy in Britain,Ken Fern. Notes from observations, tasting, etc. at Plants for a Future and on field trips. Cited in Plants for a Future to the Royal Horticultural Society's H6 hardiness rating, to -20 °C. Chestnut is Hardiness zone, which is lower in average minimal temperature than London in Hardiness zone. Castanea sativa – Mill. in Plants for a Future. The young growth in spring, even on mature plants, however, is frost-tender; bud-burst is later than most other fruit trees, so late frosts can be damaging to young buds.
Soil requirements
Castanea grows best in a soil with good drainage and adequate moisture. The tree prefers sloping, deep soils; it does not like shallow or heavy soils with impermeable, clay . The Chinese chestnut prefers a fertile, well-drained soil, but it grows well in fairly dry, rocky, or poor soils. Kentucky Division of Forestry .
Recently cleared land is best avoided to help resist the root rot, Armillaria mellia.
Sun exposure
Castanea likes a full sun position. An experiment with C. dentata seedlings in Ohio confirmed the need for sun for optimal growth. Survival and growth in size and biomass of American Chestnut ( Castanea dentata) seedlings under various silvicultural regimens in a mixed oak forest ecosystem. By Corinne McCament and Brian McCarthy. Ohio University, Athens, Ohio. Paper presented on 6 August 2003 at the ESA 2003 Annual Meeting. The butt of the tree is sometimes painted with white paint to protect the tree from sunburn until it has developed enough canopy.
Watering
The optimum rainfall for chestnut trees is or more, ideally in even distribution throughout the year. during summer is recommended. Rainfall below per year needs be complemented with, for example, a drip irrigation system. This should water the soil at the outer half of the circle formed by the drip line to encourage root growth.
Preservation
In addition to being consumed fresh, chestnuts can also be canned, pureed, or preserved in sugar or syrup ( marrons glacés). Shelled and cooked nuts should be covered, refrigerated, and used within 3–4 days. Cooked chestnuts, either whole, chopped, or pureed, may be frozen in an airtight container and held up to 9 months. Because of their high water content, transpiration rates, and consequent loss weight, the nuts react as fresh fruits (not as nuts). They should be kept cool at all times, including in shops when on display for sale. To preserve their freshness for a few months with no artificial refrigeration, the chestnuts can be soaked in cold water for about 20 hours immediately after harvest, after which they are dried in the shade, then layered in dry sand.
Chestnuts behave similarly to seeds in that they produce very little ethylene, and their respiration rate is low, varying between 5 and 20 mg/(kg·h) depending on the temperature.
Pests
Mammals and birds
Insects
The larvae of the chestnut weevil can only chew their way out of a fallen nut, so breeding occurs mostly where chestnuts lie on the ground for a sufficient length of time, or where the trees produce many small fruits which remain behind at the harvest. Timing the harvests to pick up the chestnuts as soon as they fall reduces the numbers of the larvae. Regular soil work is also unfavourable to its life habits. Small Grafting are sprayed with chemicals. A warm, aerosol-based protection has been developed for older trees, by Sifter and Bürgés in 1971. Planting chestnut orchards beside Quercus cerris forests is not advised, because both trees are susceptible to the chestnut weevil (which also uses the turkey oak acorn to develop), and the turkey oak trees can pass it on to the chestnut trees.
Diseases
The bark miner Spulerina simploniella (Lepidoptera: Gracilariidae) was found in intensively managed chestnut Coppicing in Greece, but not in orchards. The larvae (and the rain) may be agents in the spread of the disease. They mine under the thin periderm of young trees up to 10 years old, while the stem bark is still smooth. Rain during the pupation period (around the last week of May and first two weeks of June), and the actions of the larvae, may collude for Conidium to come into contact with the freshly exposed phloem, thus causing cankers. The role of Spulerina simploniella in the spread of Chestnut blight. By S. Diamandis (NAGREF, Forest Research Institute, 570 06 Vassilika, Thessaloniki, Greece) and C. Perlerou. Received: 27.07.2004; accepted: 25.02.2005; editor: P. Raddi. .
Coppicing
Most chestnut wood production is done by coppice systems, cut on a 12-year rotation to provide small timber which does not split as badly as large logs. In southern England (particularly in Kent), sweet chestnut has traditionally been grown as coppices, being recut every 10 years or so on rotation for poles used for firewood, and fencing (fence posts and chestnut paling).
Sustainable forest management
An excellent soil-enriching understory in pine forests,
sustainable forest management incorporates more mixed plantings of proven efficiency, as opposed to monosylviculture. A study presented in 1997 has evaluated positively the potential increase in productivity with mixed stands and plantations, compared to plots of only one species. The relative yield total values of the mixed plantings steadily increase with time. C. sativa responds well to competitive pressure from Pseudotsuga menziesii, the latter also showing a higher productivity. C. dentata seedlings in Ohio reforestation efforts are best achieved by planting them in places with little or no arboreous land cover, because of the need for light.
1,743.4 188.7 76.0 54.4 49.7 42.2 2,321.8 Source: FAOSTAT of the United Nations
Production
In 2020, world production of cultivated chestnuts was 2,322 , led by China with 75% of the total (table).
Uses
Nutrition
Chestnuts depart from the norm for culinary nuts, as they have little protein or fat; their calories come chiefly from carbohydrates. Fresh chestnut fruits provide about of food energy per 100 g of edible parts, which is much lower than , , other nuts, and dried fruit (about per 100 g). Chestnut – Nutritional value . Information page by a small Australian grower in Balingup, Western Australia.
Culinary
The fruit can be peeled and eaten raw, but it can be somewhat astringent, especially if the pellicle is not removed. Description of European Chestnut . By F. Ferrini and F. P. Nicese. Horticulture Department – University of Florence – Italy.
Animal fodder and litter
Chestnuts are often added to animal fodder. A first soak in limewater removes their bitter flavour, then they are ground and mixed with the ordinary provender. Other methods of preparation are also used. It is given to horses and cattle in the Orient, and to pigs in England, France and other places. The leaves are not as prone to be insect-eaten as those of the oak, and are also used for fodder.
Timber
Chestnut is of the same family as oak, and likewise its wood contains many tannins. This renders the wood very durable, gives it excellent natural outdoor resistance, Sweet Chestnut production in Farm Woodlands – CALU Technical Note ref: 050401. July 2006. and saves the need for other protection treatment. It also corrodes iron slowly, although copper, brass, or stainless metals are not affected.
Fuel
Dry, chestnut firewood is best burned in a closed log-burner, because of its tendency to spit when on an open fire.
Leather
Chestnut wood is a useful source of natural tannin and was used for tanning leather before the introduction of synthetic tannins. On a 10% moisture basis, the bark contains 6.8% tannin and the wood 13.4%.Rottsieper, E. H. W. Vegetable Tannins. The Forestal Land, Timber and Railways Co. Ltd. 1946. Cited in Plants for a Future. The bark imparts a dark color to the tannin, and has a higher sugar content, which increases the percentage of soluble non-tans, or impurities, in the extract; so it was not employed in this use. Chestnut in Search Conservation OnLine. Chestnut tannin is obtained by hot-water extraction of chipped wood. It is an ellagic tannin and its main constituents are identified by castalagin (14.2%) and vescalagin (16.2%).
It has a naturally low pH value, relatively low salts content, and high acids content. This determines its astringency and its capability to fix raw hides. These properties make chestnut extract especially suitable for the tanning of heavy hides and to produce leather soles for high-quality shoes in particular. It is possible to obtain a leather with high yield in weight, which is compact, firm, flexible, and waterproof. Chestnut-tanned leathers are elastic, lightfast, resistant to traction and abrasion, and have warm color.Wilson, J. A. (1929) The chemistry of leather manufacture. . American Chemical Society, Vol. I and II, second edition.McLaughlin, G. D. and E. R. Theis (1945). The chemistry of leather manufacture. American Chemical Society.
Chestnut tannin is one of the pyrogallol class of tannins (also known as hydrolysable tannin). As it tends to give a brownish tone to the leather, it is most often used in combination with Quebracho tannin, mimosa, tara, myrabolans, and Valonia oak.
The wood seems to reach its highest tannin content after the trees reach 30 years old. The southern European chestnut wood usually contains at least 10 to 13% more tannin than chestnut trees in northern climates.
Other uses
Fabric can be starched with chestnut flour. Linen cloth can be whitened with chestnut meal. The leaves and the skins (husk and pellicle) of the fruits provide a hair shampoo.MacDonald, R. Chiej. Encyclopaedia of Medicinal Plants. 1984. . Cited in Plants for a Future.
In culture
Notable specimens
See also
Notes
Further reading
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