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The swastika ( , ; 卐 or 卍) is a symbol that has been used in many cultures and religions of Eurasia, as well as a few in Africa and the Americas, for thousands of years. In the Western world, it is predominantly associated with the Nazi Party, which appropriated and widely displayed it on the flag of Germany and in Nazi symbolism. This appropriation continues with the symbol's popularity among Neo-Nazism around the world. The swastika was and continues to be used as a symbol of divinity and spirituality in several Indian religions, including Hinduism, Buddhism, and Jainism. It generally takes the form of a cross, the arms of which are of equal length and perpendicular to the adjacent arms, each bent midway at a right angle.
The English word swastika is originally of the Sanskrit language (, ). In Hinduism, the right-facing symbol () is called swastika, symbolizing surya, prosperity, and good luck; while the left-facing symbol () is sometimes called sauvastika, symbolising night or Tantra aspects of Kali. In Jain symbols, it is a part of the Jain flag, and represents Suparshvanatha—the seventh of 24 (spiritual teachers and saviours). In Buddhist symbolism, it represents the auspicious footprints of the Buddha. In different Indo-European traditions, the swastika symbolises fire, lightning bolts, and the Sun. The symbol is found in the archaeological remains of the Indus Valley Civilization and the Neolithic-era Samarra culture of Mesopotamia, as well as in early Byzantine art and .
The swastika was seen as a symbol of auspiciousness and good luck for most of the Western world until the 1930s. It was first used as a symbol of international antisemitism by far-right Romanian politician A. C. Cuza prior to World War I, but this did not change public perceptions about the symbol until the German Nazi Party adopted the swastika as an emblem of the so-called Aryan race. As a result of World War II and the Holocaust, Western societies continue to strongly associate the symbol with Nazism, antisemitism, white supremacy, or simply evil. As a consequence, displaying it is prohibited by law in several countries. However, the swastika remains a symbol of good luck and prosperity in Hindu, Buddhist, Jain, and other communities across Nepal, India, Thailand, Mongolia, Sri Lanka, China, and Japan, and carries various other meanings for peoples around the world, such as the Akan people, Hopi, Navajo, and Tlingit peoples. It is also commonly used in Hindu marriage ceremonies and Diwali celebrations.
According to 19th century Sanskrit scholar Monier Monier-Williams, a majority of scholars consider the swastika to originally be a solar symbol. The sign implies well-being, something fortunate, lucky, or auspicious. It is alternatively spelled in contemporary texts as svastika, and other spellings were occasionally used in the 19th and early 20th century, such as suastika.First recorded 1871 (OED); alternative historical English spellings include suastika, swastica, and svastica; see, for example: It was derived from the Sanskrit term (Devanagari स्वस्तिक]]), which transliterates to under the commonly used IAST transliteration system, but is pronounced closer to swastika.
The earliest known use of the word swastika is in Pāṇini's Aṣṭādhyāyī, which uses it to explain a Sanskrit grammar rule, in the context of a type of identifying mark on a cow's ear. Pāṇini lived in or before the 4th century BCE, possibly in 6th or 5th century BCE.
An early use of swastika in a European text was in 1871 with the publications of Heinrich Schliemann, who discovered more than 1,800 ancient instances of swastikas and variants while digging the Hisarlik mound near the Aegean Sea coast for the history of Troy. Schliemann linked his findings to the Sanskrit swastika.
By the 19th century, the term swastika was adopted into English, replacing the previous gammadion from Greek γαμμάδιον. In 1878, the Irish scholar Charles Graves used swastika as the common English name for the symbol, after defining it as equivalent to the French term croix gamméea cross with arms shaped like the Greek letter gamma (Γ). Read by Graves to the Royal Irish Academy on 13 May 1878. Shortly thereafter, the British antiquarians Edward Thomas and Robert Sewell separately published their studies about the symbol, using swastika as the common English term.
The "reversed" swastika was probably first conceived among European scholars by Eugène Burnouf in 1852 and taken up by Schliemann in Ilios (1880), based on a letter from Max Müller that quotes Burnouf. The term sauwastika is used in the sense of 'backward swastika' by Eugène Goblet d'Alviella (1894): "In India it the bears the name of swastika, when its arms are bent towards the right, and sauwastika when they are turned in the other direction." The Migration of Symbols , by Eugène Goblet d'Alviella, (1894), p. 40 at sacred-texts.com
Other names for the symbol include:
In various European languages, it is known as the fylfot, gammadion, tetraskelion, or cross cramponnée (a term in Anglo-Norman heraldry); German: Hakenkreuz; French: croix gammée; Italian: croce uncinata; Latvian Language: ugunskrusts. In Mongolian it is called хас (khas) and mainly used in seals. In Chinese it is called 卍字, pronounced wànzì in Mandarin, manji in Cantonese, manji in Japanese, manja (만자) in Korean and vạn tự or chữ vạn in Vietnamese. In Baltistan/Tibetan language it is called yung drung.
The compact swastika can be seen as a chiral irregular icosagon (20-sided polygon) with fourfold (90°) rotational symmetry. Such a swastika proportioned on a 5×5 square grid and with the broken portions of its legs shortened by one unit can Tessellation by translation alone. The main Nazi flag swastika used a 5×5 diagonal grid, but with the legs unshortened." Swastika Flag Specifications and Construction Sheet (Germany) ". Flags of the World.
The swastika is included in the Unicode character sets of two languages. In the Chinese block, it is U+534D 卍 (left-facing) and U+5350 for the swastika 卐 (right-facing); , The Unicode Standard, Version 4.1. Unicode, Inc. 2005. The latter has a mapping in the original Big5 character set,Big5: C9_C3, according to Wenlin but the former does not (although it is in Big5+Big5+: 85_80, according to Wenlin). In Unicode 5.2, two swastika symbols and two swastikas were added to the Tibetan block: swastika , , and swastikas , .
According to the scholar Reza Assasi, the swastika represents the north ecliptic North Pole centred in Zeta Draconis, with the constellation Draco as one of its beams. He argues that this symbol was later attested as the four-horse chariot of Mithra in ancient Iranian culture. They believed the cosmos was pulled by four heavenly horses who revolved around a fixed centre in a clockwise direction. He suggests that this notion later flourished in Roman Mithraism, as the symbol appears in Mithraic iconography and astronomical representations.
According to the Russian archaeologist Gennady Zdanovich, who studied some of the oldest examples of the symbol in Sintashta culture, the swastika symbolises the universe, representing the spinning constellations of the celestial north pole centred in Polaris, specifically the Little Dipper and Big Dipper (or Chariots), or Ursa Minor and Ursa Major.Gennady Zdanovich. "О мировоззрении древних жителей «Страны Городов»" . Русский след, 26 June 2017. Likewise, according to René Guénon-the swastika is drawn by visualising the Big Dipper/Great Bear in the four phases of revolution around the pole star. (2026). 9780900588785, Sophia Perennis. ISBN 9780900588785
Bob Kobres, in a 1992 paper, contends that the swastika-like comet on the Han-dynasty manuscript was labelled a "long tailed pheasant star" ( dixing) because of its resemblance to a bird's foot or footprint. Similar comparisons had been made by J.F. Hewitt in 1907, as well as a 1908 article in Good Housekeeping. Kobres goes on to suggest an association of mythological birds and comets also outside of China.
In the mountains of Iran, there are swastikas or spinning wheels inscribed on stone walls, which are estimated to be more than 7,000 years old. One instance is in Khorashad, Birjand, on the holy wall Lakh Mazar. Persian Sea magazine (2014). "The global role of the swastika in Iranian treasures, idols and carpets" . Iranian Studies. Accessed 19 April 2021. In Persian language.
Mirror-image swastikas (clockwise and counter-clockwise) have been found on ceramic pottery in the Devetashka cave, Bulgaria, dated to 6,000 BCE.
In South Asia, swastika symbols first appear in the archaeological record around 3000 BCE in the Indus Valley Civilisation. It also appears in the Bronze Age and Iron Age cultures around the Black Sea and the Caspian Sea. In all these cultures, swastika symbols do not appear to occupy any marked position or significance, appearing as just one form of a series of similar symbols of varying complexity. In the Zoroastrianism religion of Ancient Persia, the swastika was a symbol of the revolving sun, infinity, or continuing creation. It is one of the most common symbols on coins. In England, neolithic or Bronze Age stone carvings of the symbol have been found on Ilkley Moor, such as the Swastika Stone.
Swastikas have also been found on pottery in archaeological digs in Africa, in the area of Kush and on pottery at the Jebel Barkal temples,Dunham, Dows "A Collection of 'Pot-Marks' from Kush and Nubia", Kush, 13, 131–147, 1965 in Iron Age designs of the northern Caucasus (Koban culture), and in Neolithic China in the Majiayao culture culture.
Swastikas are also seen in Egypt during the Coptic period. Textile number T.231-1923 held at the V&A Museum in London includes small swastikas in its design. This piece was found at Qau-el-Kebir, near Asyut, and is dated between 300 and 600 CE.
The Tierwirbel (the German for "animal whorl" or "whirl of animals"a term coined by Anna Roes, "Tierwirbel", IPEK, 1936–1937) is a characteristic motif in Bronze Age Central Asia, the Eurasian Steppe, and later also in Iron Age Scythian and European (Baltic peoples and Germanic peoples) culture, showing rotational symmetric arrangement of an Animal style, often four birds' heads. Even wider diffusion of this "Asiatic" theme has been proposed to the Pacific and even North America (especially Moundville).Claude Lévi-Strauss, Structural Anthropology (1959), p. 267.
Swastikas can also be seen on early Medieval churches and fortresses, including the principal tower in Armenia's historical capital city of Ani. The same symbol can be found on , cross-stones ( khachkar) and in medieval manuscripts, as well as on modern monuments as a symbol of eternity.
Old of four-beam and other swastikas were recorded in Dagestan, in particular, among the Avars. According to Vakhushti of Kartli, the tribal banner of the Avar Khanate depicted a wolf with a standard with a double-spiral swastika.Vakhushti of Kartli. Description of the Kingdom of Georgia.
Petroglyphs with swastikas were depicted on medieval Vainakh tower architecture (see sketches by scholar Bruno Plaetschke from the 1920s). Thus, a rectangular swastika was made in engraved form on the entrance of a residential tower in the settlement Khimoy, Chechnya.
Swastika shapes have been found on numerous artefacts from Iron Age Europe.Jacob G. Ghazarian (2006), The Mediterranean legacy in early Celtic Christianity: a journey from Armenia to Ireland , Bennett & Bloom, pp. 263, p. 171 "...Quite a different version of the Celtic triskelion, and perhaps the most common pre-Christian symbolism found throughout Armenian cultural tradition, is the round clockwise (occasionally counter-clockwise) whirling sun-like spiral fixed at a centrethe Armenian symbol of eternity."K. B. Mehr, M. Markow, Mormon Missionaries enter Eastern Europe, Brigham Young University Press, 2002, pp. 399, p. 252 "...She viewed a tall building with spires and circular windows along the top of the walls. It was engraved with sun stones, a typical symbol of eternity in ancient Armenian architecture."
The swastika shape appears on various Germanic Migration Period and Viking Age artifacts, such as the 3rd-century Værløse Fibula from Zealand, Denmark, the Goths spearhead from Brest-Litovsk, today in Belarus, the 9th-century Snoldelev Stone from Ramsø, Denmark, and numerous Migration Period drawn left-facing or right-facing.
The pagan Anglo-Saxons ship burial at Sutton Hoo, England, contained numerous items bearing swastikas, now housed in the collection of the Cambridge Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology. A swastika is clearly marked on a hilt and sword belt found at Bifrons in Kent, in a grave of about the 6th century.
Hilda Ellis Davidson hypothesised that the swastika symbol was associated with Thor, possibly representing his of thunderand possibly being connected to the Bronze Age sun cross. Davidson cites "many examples" of swastika symbols from Anglo-Saxon graves of the pagan period, with particular prominence on cremation urns from the cemeteries of East Anglia. Some of the swastikas on the items, on display at the Cambridge Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology, are depicted with such care and art that, according to Davidson, it must have possessed special significance as a funerary art. The runic inscription on the 8th-century Sæbø sword has been taken as evidence of the swastika as a symbol of Thor in Norse paganism.
The bronze frontispiece of a ritual pre-Christian () shield found in the River Thames near Battersea Bridge (hence "Battersea Shield") is embossed with 27 swastikas in bronze and red enamel. An Ogham stone found in Aglish, County Kerry, Ireland (CIIC 141) was modified into an early Christian gravestone, and was decorated with a cross pattée and two swastikas. The Book of Kells () contains swastika-shaped ornamentation. A number of swastikas have been found embossed in Galician metal pieces and carved in stones, mostly from the Castro culture period, although there also are contemporary examples (imitating old patterns for decorative purposes).Domínguez Fontela, J. (1938): Cerámica de Santa Tecla. Un hallazgo importantísimo in Faro de Vigo.Romero, Bieito (2009): Xeometrías Máxicas de Galicia. Ir Indo, Vigo.
The ancient Balts thunder cross symbol ( pērkona krusts or perkūno kryžius (cross of Perkūnas); also fire cross, ugunskrusts) is a swastika symbol used to decorate objects, traditional clothing and in archaeological excavations.
In Lithuania since ancient times the swastika—found on objects crafted from antler, wood, metal, and clay—served as a significant cultural and religious emblem deeply rooted in Baltic tradition for the Lithuanians. The researchers of Klaipėda University discovered that there was no standardized or canonical form of the symbol: on single-sided artifacts, the swastika’s arms could rotate either clockwise or counterclockwise, whereas two-sided items might display both orientations simultaneously, suggesting an inclusive or multifaceted symbolic intention. Importantly, the contexts in which the swastika appears often linked the symbol to two deities in Lithuanian mythology: Perkūnas, the god of thunder, and Kalvis, the blacksmith. This association reinforces the concept of the swastika as a manifestation of the “fire cross”—an equilateral cross symbolizing fire or thunder—an enduring motif within Baltic and ancient Lithuanian religious iconography.
According to painter Stanisław Jakubowski, the "little sun" (Polish: słoneczko) is an Early Slavs pagan symbol of the Sun; he claimed it was engraved on wooden monuments built near the final resting places of fallen Slavs to represent eternal life. The symbol was first seen in his collection of Early Slavic symbols and architectural features, which he named Prasłowiańskie motywy architektoniczne (Polish: Early Slavic Architectural Motifs). His work was published in 1923.
The Boreyko coat of arms with a red swastika was used by several noble families in the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth.
According to Boris Kuftin, the Russians often used swastikas as a decorative element and as the basis of the ornament on traditional weaving products. Many can be seen on a women's folk costume from the Meshchera Lowlands.
According to some authors, Russian names popularly associated with the swastika include veterok ("breeze"), ognevtsi ("little flames"), "geese", "hares" (a towel with a swastika was called a towel with "hares"), or "little horses". The similar word " koleso" ("wheel") was used for rosette-shaped amulets, such as a hexafoil-thunder wheel ) in folklore, particularly in the Russian North. (1989). 9780765630889, M. E. Sharpe. ISBN 9780765630889
An object very much like a hammer or a double axe is depicted among the magical symbols on the drums of Sami people noaidi, used in their religious ceremonies before Christianity was established. The name of the Sami thunder god was Horagalles, thought to derive from "Old Man Thor" ( Þórr karl). Sometimes on the drums, a male figure with a hammer-like object in either hand is shown, and sometimes it is more like a cross with crooked ends, or a swastika.
The swastika has a particular association with Diwali, being drawn in rangoli (coloured sand) or formed with deepak lights on the floor outside Hindu houses and on wall hangings and other decorations.
In the diverse traditions within Hinduism, both the clockwise and counter-clockwise swastika are found, with different meanings. The counter-clockwise or left hand symbol is sometimes called sauwastika or sauvastika. The clockwise swastika is a solar symbol (Surya), suggesting the motion of the Sun in India (the northern hemisphere), where it appears to enter from the east, then ascend to the south at midday, exiting to the west. A counter-clockwise swastika is less used; it connotes the night, and in tantric traditions it is an icon for the goddess Kali, the terrifying form of Devi Durga. The symbol also represents activity, karma, motion, wheel, and in some contexts the lotus. According to Norman McClelland its symbolism for motion and the Sun may be from shared prehistoric cultural roots.
The swastika symbol is common in esoteric tantric traditions of Buddhism, along with Hinduism, where it is found with chakra theories and other meditative aids. The clockwise symbol is more common, and contrasts with the counter-clockwise version common in the Tibetan Bon tradition and locally called yungdrung.
In East Asia, the swastika is prevalent in Buddhist monasteries and communities. It is commonly found in Buddhist temples, religious artifacts, texts related to Buddhism and schools founded by Buddhist religious groups. It also appears as a design or motif (singularly or woven into a pattern) on textiles, architecture and various decorative objects as a symbol of luck and good fortune. The icon is also found as a sacred symbol in the Bon tradition, but in the left-facing orientation.
Musaeus College in Colombo, Sri Lanka, a Buddhist girls' school, has a left facing swastika in their school logo.
In India, Swastik and Swastika, with their spelling variants, are first names for males and females respectively, for instance with Swastika Mukherjee. The Emblem of Bihar contains two swastikas.
In Bhutan, swastika motifs are found in architecture, fabrics and religious ceremonies.
Among the predominantly Hindu population of Bali, in Indonesia, swastikas are common in temples, homes and public spaces. Similarly, the swastika is a common icon associated with Buddha's footprints in Theravada Buddhist communities of Myanmar, Thailand and Cambodia.
The Tantra-based new religious movement Ananda Marga (Devanagari: आनन्द मार्ग, meaning 'Path of Bliss') uses a motif similar to the Raëlians, but in their case the apparent star of David is defined as intersecting triangles with no specific reference to Jewish culture.
The Chinese character could be used as a stand-alone《labels=no》or《c=卍》or as be used as pairs《labels=no c=卍》in Chinese visual arts, decorative arts, and clothing due to its auspicious connotation.
Adding the character (labels=no or c=卍) to other auspicious Chinese symbols or patterns can multiply that wish by 10,000 times. It can be combined with other Chinese characters, such as the Chinese character 《壽》for longevity where it is sometimes even integrated into the Chinese character to augment the meaning of longevity.
The paired swastika symbols (labels=no and c=卍) are included, at least since the Liao Dynasty (907–1125 CE), as part of the Chinese writing system and are variant characters for 《萬》 or 《万》 ( wàn in Mandarin, 《만》( man) in Korean, Cantonese, and Japanese, vạn in Vietnamese) meaning "myriad".
The character can also be stylized in the form of the , Chinese auspicious clouds.
When the Chinese writing system was introduced to Japan in the 8th century, the swastika was adopted into the Japanese language and culture. It is commonly referred as the manji (). Since the Middle Ages, it has been used as a mon by various Japanese families such as Tsugaru clan, Hachisuka clan or around 60 clans that belong to Tokugawa clan.(Japanese) Hitoshi Takazawa, Encyclopedia of Kamon, Tōkyōdō Shuppan, 2008. . The city of Hirosaki in Aomori Prefecture designates this symbol as its official flag, which stemmed from its use in the emblem of the Tsugaru clan, the lords of Hirosaki Domain during the Edo period.
In Japan, the swastika is also used as a map symbol and is designated by the Survey Act and related Japanese governmental rules to denote a Buddhist temple. Japan has considered changing this due to occasional controversy and misunderstanding by foreigners. The symbol is sometimes censored in international versions of Japanese works, such as anime. Censorship of this symbol in Japan and in Japanese media abroad has been subject to occasional controversy related to freedom of speech, with critics of the censorship arguing it does not respect history nor freedom of speech.
In Chinese art and Japanese art, swastikas are often found as part of a repeating pattern. One common pattern, called sayagata in Japanese, comprises left- and right-facing swastikas joined by lines."Sayagata 紗綾形". Japanese Architecture and Art Net Users System. As the negative space between the lines has a distinctive shape, the sayagata pattern is sometimes called the key fret motif in English.
Many Chinese religions make use of swastika symbols, including Guiyidao and Shanrendao. The Red Swastika Society, formed in China in 1922 as the philanthropic branch of Guiyidao, became the largest supplier of emergency relief in China during World War II, in the same manner as the Red Cross in the rest of the world. The Red Swastika Society abandoned mainland China in 1954, settling first in Hong Kong then in Taiwan. They continue to use the red swastika as their symbol. (2026). 9781786437969, Edward Elgar Publishing. ISBN 9781786437969
The Falun Gong qigong movement, founded in China in the early 1990s, uses a symbol that features a large swastika surrounded by four smaller (and rounded) ones, interspersed with yin-and-yang symbols.
In Greco-Roman art and architecture, and in Romanesque and Gothic art in the West, isolated swastikas are relatively rare, and the swastika is more commonly found as a repeated element in a border or tessellation. Swastikas often represented perpetual motion, reflecting the design of a rotating windmill or watermill. A meander of connected swastikas makes up the large band that surrounds the Augustus Ara Pacis.
A design of interlocking swastikas is one of several on the floor of the Amiens Cathedral of Amiens, France.Robert Ferré. " Amiens Cathedral ". Labyrinth Enterprises. Constructed from 1220 to 1402, Amiens Cathedral is the largest Gothic cathedral in France, a popular tourist attraction and since 1981 a UNESCO World Heritage Site. During World War I, Amiens was targeted by German forces but remained in Allied territory following the Battle of Amiens. A border of linked swastikas was a common Roman architectural motif,Gary Malkin. " Tockington Park Roman Villa". The Area of Bristol in Roman Times. 9December 2002. and can be seen in more recent buildings as a neoclassical element. A swastika border is one form of meander, and the individual swastikas in such a border are sometimes called Greek keys. There have also been swastikas found on the floors of Pompeii.Lara Nagy, Jane Vadnal, "Glossary Medieval Art and Architecture", "Greek key or meander" , University of Pittsburgh 1997–1998.
Swastikas were widespread among the Illyrians, symbolising the Sun and the fire. The Sun cult was the main Illyrian cult; a swastika in clockwise motion is interpreted in particular as a representation of the movement of the Sun. p. 32. pp. 69–70, 75.
The swastika has been preserved by the Albanians since Illyrian times as a pagan symbol commonly found in a variety of contexts of Albanian folk art, including traditional tattooing, grave art, jewellery, clothes, and house carvings. The swastika ( or kryqi i thyer, "hooked cross") and other crosses in Albanian tradition represent the Sun (Dielli) and the fire (zjarri, evidently called with the theonym Enji). In Albanian paganism fire is regarded as the offspring of the Sun and fire calendar rituals are practiced in order to give strength to the Sun and to apotropaic.
A ceiling painted in 1910 in the Grenoble Archaeological Museum (the former church of St Laurent) has many swastikas. A proposed direct link between it and a swastika floor mosaic in the Amiens Cathedral, which was built on top of a pagan site at Amiens, France in the 13th century, is considered unlikely. The stole worn by a priest in the 1445 painting of the Seven Sacraments by Rogier van der Weyden presents the swastika form simply as one way of depicting the cross.
Swastikas also appear in art and architecture during the Renaissance and Baroque era. The fresco The School of Athens shows an ornament made out of swastikas, and the symbol can also be found on the facade of the Santa Maria della Salute, a Roman Catholic church and minor basilica located at Punta della Dogana in the Dorsoduro sestiere of the city of Venice.
In the Polish First Republic swastika symbols were also popular with the nobility. Several noble houses, e.g. Boreyko, Borzym, and Radziechowski from Ruthenia, also had swastikas as their coat of arms. The family reached its greatness in the 14th and 15th centuries and its crest can be seen in many heraldry books produced at that time.
The swastika was also a heraldic symbol, for example on the Boreyko coat of arms, used by noblemen in Poland and Ukraine. In the 19th century a swastika was one of the Russian Empire's symbols and was used on coinage as a backdrop to the .
Schliemann believed that use of swastikas spread widely across Eurasia.
Schliemann established a link between the swastika and Germany. He connected objects he excavated at Troy to objects bearing swastikas found in Germany near Königswalde on the Oder.
Sarah Boxer, in an article in 2000 in The New York Times, described this as a "fateful link". According to Steven Heller, "Schliemann presumed that the swastika was a religious symbol of his German ancestors which linked ancient Teutons, Homeric Greeks and Vedic India". According to Bernard Mees, "Of all of the pre-runic symbols, the swastika has always been the most popular among scholars" and "The origin of swastika studies must be traced to the excitement generated by the archaeological finds of Heinrich Schliemann at Troy".
After his excavations at Troy, Schliemann began digging at Mycenae. According to Cathy Gere, "Having burdened the swastika symbol with such cultural, religious and racial significance in Troy and Its Remains, it was incumbent on Schliemann to find the symbol repeated at Mycenae, but its occurrence turned out to be disappointingly infrequent". Gere writes that "He did his best with what he had":
Gere points out that although Schliemann wrote that the motif "may often be seen", his 1878 book Mycenæ did not have illustrations of any examples. Schliemann described "a small and thick terra-cotta disk" on which "are engraved a number of 卍's, the sign which occurs so frequently in the ruins of Troy", but as Gere notes, he did not publish an illustration. Among the gold grave goods at Grave Circles A and B was a repoussé roundel in grave III of Grave Circle A, the ornamentation of which Schliemann thought was "derived" from the swastika:
According to Gere, this motif is "completely dissimilar" to the swastika, and that Schliemann was "straining desperately after the same connection". Nevertheless, the Mycenaean Greeks and the Trojan people both came to be identified as representatives of the Aryan race: "Despite the difficulties with linking the symbolism of Troy and Mycenae, the common Aryan roots of the two peoples became something of a truism".
The house Schliemann had had built in Panepistimiou Street in Athens by 1880, Iliou Melathron, is decorated with swastika symbols and motifs in numerous places, including the ironwork railing and gates, the window bars, the ceiling fresco of the entrance hall, and the entire floor of one room.
Following Schliemann, academic studies on the swastika were published by , Michał Żmigrodzki, Eugène Goblet d'Alviella, Thomas Wilson, Oscar Montelius and Joseph Déchelette.
In 1897, Max Ferdinand Sebaldt von Werth published Wanidis and Sexualreligion, which according to Nicholas Goodrick-Clarke in The Occult Roots of Nazism, "described the sexual-religion of the Aryans, a sacred practice of eugenics designed to maintain the purity of the race". Both works were "illustrated with the magical curved-armed armed swastika". Influenced by Sebaldt, List published in an article ("Germanischer Lichtdienst") which claimed the swastika was a sacred symbol of the Aryans representing the "fire-whisk" (Feuerquirl) with which the creator deity italic=no had begun the world. In September 1903, List published an article discussing the creation of the universe, the "old-Aryan sexual religion", reincarnation, karma, "Wotanism", and "Armanism" from his theosophical viewpoint, which was illustrated by triskelions and various swastikas in the Viennese occult journal Die Gnosis. According to Goodrick-Clarke, "This article marked the first stage in List's articulation of a Germanic occult religion, the principal concern of which was racial purity".
Between 1905 and 1907, List published articles in the Leipziger Illustrierte Zeitung arguing that the swastika, the triskelion, and the sun-wheel were all "Armanist" occult symbols (Armanen runes) concealed in German heraldry, and in 1908 his Das Geheimnis der Runen () argued that the swastika or Armanen rune "Gibor" was represented in including different heraldic crosses and kinked versions of the ordinaries pale, bend, and fess. List argued that the swastika, triskelion, and other Armanen runes had been concealed in 15th-century rose windows and curvilinear tracery in late Gothic architecture. List's 1908 book Die Rita der Ario-Germanen () had chapter headings with triskelions, swastikas, and other symbols attached. The work laid out his belief in an ancient priestly Armanenschaft of Wotanist initiates and identified the "Ario-Germans" as a "race" identical with Helena Blavatsky's theosophical fifth "root race". List's 1910 Die Religion der Ario-Germanen () discussed and the Kali Yuga, proposing a mathematical relationship with the Grímnismál of the italic=no. His Die Bilderschrift der Ario-Germanen () of the same year connected Blavatsky's Hindu-inspired cosmic cycles (kalpas) with the realms of Muspelheim (Muspilheim), Asgard, Vanaheimr (Wanenheim), and Midgard, each with a corresponding symbol. Blavatsky's first Astral and second races List connected with the descendants of Ymir and Orgelmir, her third race was his race of Thrudgelmir, her fourth Atlantis race his descendants of Bergelmir, and Blavatsky's fifth root race List identified as the "Ario-Germans". According to Goodrick-Clarke, List again argued that the clockwise swastika was a holy symbol of the "Ario-Germans":
List's 1914 Die Ursprache der Ario-Germanen () adopted the geological ideas of theosophist William Scott-Elliot and claimed that fragments of Atlantis remained part of Europe, pointing to rocking stones in Lower Austria and European megaliths as evidence. From Jörg Lanz von Liebenfels, List took on occult ideas about the Aryan homeland Arktogäa (a lost polar continent), and struggle the Ario-German and the non-Aryan slave races, and the Knights Templar. List believed that the Templars had been adepts of "Armanism" during the Middle Ages' Christian ascendancy, and that they had been suppressed for worshipping the Maltese cross that List believed to be derived from a superimposed clockwise and counter-clockwise swastika and which he identified with Baphomet. Members of the inner circle of the Guido von List Society, the italic=no (HAO), expressed their membership of the occult priesthood with swastikas. Heinrich Winter, Friedrich Oskar Wannieck, and Georg Hauerstein senior's first wife all had their graves decorated with swastikas. designed 1907 with a swastika used as völkisch (German ethno-nationalist) symbol]]Lanz, a former Cistercian, established the Order of the New Templars or ONT (Ordo Novi Templi ) in imitation of the Knights Templar whose monastic rule had been written by the Cistercian Bernard of Clairvaux and whom Lanz believed had aimed to establish "a Pan-Germanism Monastic order-state, which would encompass the entire Mediterranean area and extend its sphere of influence deep into the Middle East" whose eventual suppression had been a triumph of racial inferiority over the "Ario-Christian" eugenics practised by the Templars. As the headquarters of his revived Templar Order and as a museum of Aryan anthropology, Lanz bought on the Danube, where on Christmas Day 1907, he hoisted his heraldic banner ( gules, an eagle's wing argent) and the flag of the ONT: a swastika gules surrounded by four fleurs-de-lis azure on a field or.
The Benedictine choir school at Lambach Abbey, Upper Austria, which Hitler attended for several months as a boy, had a swastika chiselled into the monastery portal and also the wall above the spring grotto in the courtyard by 1868. Their origin was the personal coat of arms of Theoderich Hagn, abbot of the monastery in Lambach, which bore a golden swastika with slanted points on a blue field. Holocaust Chronology
The British author and poet Rudyard Kipling used the symbol on the cover art of a number of his works, including The Five Nations, 1903, which has it twinned with an elephant. Once Adolf Hitler and the Nazis came to power, Kipling ordered that swastikas should no longer adorn his books. In 1927, a red swastika defaced by a Union Jack was proposed as a flag for the Union of South Africa.
The logo of Eimskip was a swastika, called "Thor's hammer", from its founding in 1914 until the Second World War when it was discontinued and changed to read only the letters Eimskip.
The swastika was also used by the women's paramilitary organisation Lotta Svärd, which was banned in 1944 in accordance with the Moscow Armistice between Finland and the allied Soviet Union and Britain.
Also, the insignias of the Cross of Liberty, designed by Gallen-Kallela in 1918, have swastikas. The 3rd class Cross of Liberty is depicted in the upper left corner of the standard of the President of Finland, who is the grand master of the order, too. Flag The President of the Republic Of Finland
Latvia adopted the swastika, for its Air Force in 1918/1919 and continued its use until the Soviet occupation in 1940. The cross itself was maroon on a white background, mirroring the colours of the Latvian flag. Earlier versions pointed counter-clockwise, while later versions pointed clock-wise and eliminated the white background. Latvian Air Force 1918–1940 . Retrieved 30 September 2008. Spārnota Latvija . Retrieved 30 September 2008. Various other Latvian Army units and the Latvian War College (the predecessor of the National Defence Academy) also had adopted the symbol in their battle flags and insignia during the Latvian War of Independence. A stylised fire cross is the base of the Order of Lāčplēsis, the highest military decoration of Latvia for participants of the War of Independence. The Pērkonkrusts, an ultra-nationalist political organisation active in the 1930s, also used the fire cross as one of its symbols.
The swastika symbol (Lithuanian: sūkurėlis) is a traditional Baltic ornament, found on relics dating from at least the 13th century. The sūkurėlis for Lithuanians represents the history and memory of their Lithuanian ancestors as well as the Balts at large. There are monuments in Lithuania such as the Freedom Monument in Rokiškis where swastikas can be found. In Lithuania, the swastika was first used on a flag in 1924 by the Lithuanian Nationalist Union.
Starting in 1917, Mikal Sylten's staunchly antisemitic periodical, Nationalt Tidsskrift took up the swastika as a symbol, three years before Adolf Hitler chose to do so.
The left-handed swastika was a favourite sign of the last Russian Empress Alexandra Feodorovna. She wore a talisman in the form of a swastika, put it everywhere for happiness, including on her suicide letters from Tobolsk, later drew with a pencil on the wall and in the window opening of the room in the Ipatiev House, which served as the place of the last imprisonment of the royal family and on the wallpaper above the bed.
The Russian Provisional Government of 1917 printed a number of new bank notes with right-facing, diagonally rotated swastikas in their centres. The banknote design was initially intended for the Mongolian national bank but was re-purposed for after the February revolution. Swastikas were depicted and on some Soviet credit cards () printed with clichés that were in circulation in 1918–1922.
During the Russian Civil War, swastikas were present in the symbolism of the uniform of some units of the White Army Asiatic Cavalry Division of Baron Ungern in Siberia and Bogd Khanate of Mongolia, which is explained by the significant number of Buddhists within it. The Red Army's ethnic Kalmyk people units wore distinct armbands featuring a swastika with "РСФСР" (Roman: "RSFSR") inscriptions on them.
In the 1880s, the U.S.-origined Theosophical Society adopted a swastika as part of its seal, along with an Om, a hexagram or star of David, an Ankh, and an Ouroboros. Unlike the much more recent Raëlian movement, the Theosophical Society symbol has been free from controversy, and the seal is still used. The current seal also includes the text "There is no religion higher than truth."
The Raëlian Movement, whose adherents believe extraterrestrials created all life on earth, use a symbol that is often the source of considerable controversy: an interlaced star of David and a swastika. The Raëlians say the Star of David represents infinity in space whereas the swastika represents infinity in timeno beginning and no end in time, and everything being cyclic. In 1991, the symbol was changed to remove the swastika, out of respect to the victims of the Holocaust, but as of 2007 it has been restored to its original form.
The swastika is a holy symbol in neopaganism Germanic Heathenry, along with the hammer of Thor and runes. This traditionwhich is found in Scandinavia, Germany, and elsewhereconsiders the swastika to be derived from a Norse symbol for the sun. Their use of the symbol has led people to accuse them of being a neo-Nazi group.
In his 1925 work Mein Kampf, Hitler writes: "I myself, meanwhile, after innumerable attempts, had laid down a final form; a flag with a red background, a white disk, and a black hooked cross in the middle. After long trials I also found a definite proportion between the size of the flag and the size of the white disk, as well as the shape and thickness of the hooked cross."
When Hitler created a flag for the Nazi Party, he sought to incorporate both the swastika and "those revered colours expressive of our homage to the glorious past and which once brought so much honour to the German nation". (Red, white, and black were the colours of the flag of the old German Empire.) He also stated: "As National Socialists, we see our program in our flag. In red, we see the social idea of the movement; in white, the nationalistic idea; in the hooked cross, the mission of the struggle for the victory of the Aryan race man, and, by the same token, the victory of the idea of creative work."
The swastika was also understood as "the symbol of the creating, effecting life" (das Symbol des schaffenden, wirkenden Lebens) and as "race emblem of Germanism" (Rasseabzeichen des Germanentums).Walther Blachetta: Das Buch der deutschen Sinnzeichen (The book of German sense characters); reprint of 1941; p. 47
The concepts of racial hygiene and scientific racism were central to Nazism. High-ranking Nazi theorist Alfred Rosenberg noted that the Indo-Aryan peoples were both a model to be imitated and a warning of the dangers of the spiritual and racial "confusion" that, he believed, arose from the proximity of races. The Nazis co-opted the swastika as a symbol of the Aryan master race.
On 14 March 1933, shortly after Hitler's appointment as Chancellor of Germany, the NSDAP flag was hoisted alongside Germany's national colours. As part of the Nuremberg Laws, the NSDAP flagwith the swastika slightly offset from centrewas adopted as the sole national flag of Germany on 15 September 1935.James Whitman, "Hitler's American Model: The United States and the Making of Nazi Race Law", (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2017), p. 28.
Before the 1930s, the symbol for the 45th Infantry Division of the United States Army was a red diamond with a yellow swastika, a tribute to the large Native American population in the southwestern United States. It was later replaced with a thunderbird symbol.
In the 20th century, traders encouraged Native American artists to use the symbol in their crafts, and it was used by the US Army 45th Infantry Division, an all-Native American division. The symbol lost popularity in the 1930s due to its associations with Nazi Germany. In 1940, partially due to government encouragement, community leaders from several different Native American tribes made a statement promising to no longer use the symbol. However, the symbol has continued to be used by Native American groups, both in reference to the original symbol and as a memorial to the 45th Division, despite external objections to its use.Brown, Jerome F. "Anti-semitism on campus: the swastika of NMSU." Shofar (1986): 22–32.Heller, Steven. The swastika: symbol beyond redemption? Simon and Schuster, 2010. The symbol was used on state road signs in Arizona from the 1920s until the 1940s.
The town of Swastika, Ontario, and the hamlet of Swastika, New York were named after the symbol.
From 1909 to 1916, the K-R-I-T automobile, manufactured in Detroit, Michigan, used a right-facing swastika as their trademark.
The flag of the Guna people (also "Kuna Yala" or "Guna Yala") of Panama. This flag, adopted in 1925, has a swastika symbol that they call Naa Ukuryaa. According to one explanation, this ancestral symbol symbolises the octopus that created the world, its tentacles pointing to the four cardinal points. Chants and Myths about Creation , from Rainforest Art. Retrieved 25 February 2006. In 1942, a ring was added to the centre of the flag to differentiate it from the symbol of the Nazi Party (this version subsequently fell into disuse).
In the early 1990s, the former dissident and one of the founders of Russian neo-paganism Alexey Dobrovolsky first gave the name "kolovrat" (, literally 'spinning wheel') to a four-beam swastika, identical to the Nazi symbol, and later transferred this name to an eight-beam rectangular swastika. Dobroslav. Природные корни русского национального социализма // Russkaya Pravda. 1996. Спецвыпуск No. 1 (3). С. 3. The eight-beam swastika dates back all the way to Ancient Greece with some ceramics containing the eight-beamed symbol. A necklace found in Ukraine via metal detection is estimated to date back to the 11th century and also contained the kolovrat symbol, providing some solid evidence of its presence among the Slavic people at the time. A six-beamed variant is located in the tower of the Vang Church in Karpacz, Poland. According to the historian and religious scholar Roman Shizhensky, Dobrovolsky took the idea of the swastika from the work "The Chronicle of Oera Linda" by the Nazi ideologist Herman Wirth, the first head of the Ahnenerbe. Dobrovolsky introduced the eight-beam "kolovrat" as a symbol of "resurgent paganism." He considered this version of the Kolovrat a pagan sign of the sun and, in 1996, declared it a symbol of the uncompromising "national liberation struggle" against the "Zhyd yoke". According to Dobrovolsky, the meaning of the "kolovrat" completely coincides with the meaning of the Nazi swastika. The kolovrat is the most commonly used religious symbol within neopagan Slavic Native Faith (a.k.a. Rodnovery).
In 2005, authorities in Tajikistan called for the widespread adoption of the swastika as a national symbol. President Emomali Rahmonov declared the swastika an Aryan symbol, and 2006 "the year of Aryan culture", which would be a time to "study and popularise Aryan contributions to the history of the world civilisation, raise a new generation (of Tajiks) with the spirit of national self-determination, and develop deeper ties with other ethnicities and cultures".
As a result, all use of it, or its use as a Nazi or hate symbol, is prohibited in some countries, including Germany. In some countries, such as the United States (in the 2003 case Virginia v. Black), the highest courts have ruled that the local governments can prohibit the use of swastika along with other symbols such as cross burning, if the intent of the use is to intimidate others.
A controversy was stirred by the decision of several police departments to begin inquiries against anti-fascists. In late 2005 police raided the offices of the punk rock label and mail order store "Nix Gut Records" and confiscated merchandise depicting crossed-out swastikas and fists smashing swastikas. In 2006 the Stade police department started an inquiry against anti-fascist youths using a placard depicting a person dumping a swastika into a trashcan. The placard was displayed in opposition to the campaign of right-wing nationalist parties for local elections. Tageblatt 23 September 2006
On Friday, 17 March 2006, a member of the Bundestag, Claudia Roth reported herself to the German police for displaying a crossed-out swastika in multiple demonstrations against neo-Nazis, and subsequently got the Bundestag to suspend her immunity from prosecution. She intended to show the absurdity of charging anti-fascists with using fascist symbols: "We don't need prosecution of non-violent young people engaging against right-wing extremism." On 15 March 2007, the Federal Court of Justice of Germany (Bundesgerichtshof) held that the crossed-out symbols were "clearly directed against a revival of national-socialist endeavours", thereby settling the dispute for the future.
On 9 August 2018, Germany lifted the ban on the usage of swastikas and other Nazi symbols in video games. "Through the change in the interpretation of the law, games that critically look at current affairs can for the first time be given a USK age rating," USK managing director Elisabeth Secker told CTV. "This has long been the case for films and with regards to the freedom of the arts, this is now rightly also the case with computer and videogames."
The European Union's Executive Commission proposed a European Union-wide anti-racism law in 2001, but European Union states failed to agree on the balance between prohibiting racism and freedom of expression. An attempt to ban the swastika across the EU in early 2005 failed after objections from the British Government and others. In early 2007, while Germany held the European Union presidency, Berlin proposed that the European Union should follow German Criminal Law and criminalise the Holocaust denial and the display of Nazi symbols including the swastika, which is based on the Ban on the Symbols of Unconstitutional Organisations Act. This led to an opposition campaign by Hindu groups across Europe against a ban on the swastika. They pointed out that the swastika has been around for 5,000 years as a symbol of peace.Staff. Hindus opposing EU swastika ban , BBC online, 17 January 2007.Staff (source dgs/Reuters) Hindus Against Proposed EU Swastika Ban Der Spiegel online, 17 January 2007 The proposal to ban the swastika was dropped by Berlin from the proposed European Union wide anti-racism laws on 29 January 2007.
The public display of Nazi-era German flags (or any other flags) is protected by the First Amendment to the United States Constitution, which guarantees the right to freedom of speech. The Nazi Reichskriegsflagge has also been seen on display at white supremacist events within United States borders, side by side with the Confederate battle flag.
In 2010, the Anti-Defamation League (ADL) downgraded the swastika from its status as a Jewish hate symbol, saying "We know that the swastika has, for some, lost its meaning as the primary symbol of Nazism and instead become a more generalised symbol of hate." The ADL notes on their website that the symbol is often used as "shock graffiti" by juveniles, rather than by individuals who hold white supremacist beliefs, but it is still a predominant symbol among American white supremacists (particularly as a tattoo design) and used with antisemitic intention.
In 2022, Victoria was the first Australian state to ban the display of the Nazi's swastika. People who intentionally break this law will face a one-year jail sentence, a fine of 120 penalty units ($23,077.20 AUD as of 2023, equivalent to £12,076.66 or US$15,385.57), or both.
In the Indiana Jones Stunt Spectacular at Disney Hollywood Studios in Florida, the swastikas on German trucks, aircraft and actor uniforms in the re-enactment of a scene from Raiders of the Lost Ark were removed in 2004.
The swastika, in various iconographic forms, is one of the hate symbols identified in use as graffiti in US schools, and is described as such in a 1999 US Department of Education document, "Responding to Hate at School: A Guide for Teachers, Counsellors and Administrators", edited by Jim Carnes, which provides advice to educators on how to support students targeted by such hate symbols and address hate graffiti. Examples given show that it is often used alongside other white supremacist symbols, such as those of the Ku Klux Klan, and note a Triskelion used by skinheads, white supremacists, and "some South African extremist groups".Carnes, Jim (1999), Responding to Hate at School: A Guide for Teachers, Counselors and Administrators , ERIC, Department of Education, US Government, pp. 9–11, 33, 49–50
The neo-Nazi Russian National Unity group's branch in Estonia is officially registered under the name "Kolovrat" and published an extremist newspaper in 2001 under the same name. A criminal investigation found the paper included an array of racial epithets. One Narva resident was sentenced to one year in jail for distribution of Kolovrat. (2026). 9780415355933, Routledge. ISBN 9780415355933 The Kolovrat has since been used by the Rusich Group, a Russian militant group known for its operation during the war in Donbas. In 2014 and 2015, members of the Ukrainian Azov Regiment were seen with swastika tattoos.
When a ten-year-old boy in Lynbrook, New York, bought a set of Pokémon cards imported from Japan in 1999, two of the cards contained the left-facing Buddhist swastika. The boy's parents misinterpreted the symbol as the right-facing Nazi swastika and filed a complaint to the manufacturer. Nintendo of America announced that the cards would be discontinued, explaining that what was acceptable in one culture was not necessarily so in another; their action was welcomed by the Anti-Defamation League who recognised that there was no intention to offend, but said that international commerce meant that "Isolating the in Asia would just create more problems."
In 2002, Christmas crackers containing plastic toy red pandas sporting swastikas were pulled from shelves after complaints from customers in Canada. The manufacturer, based in China, said the symbol was presented in a traditional sense and not as a reference to the Nazis, and apologised to the customers for the cross-cultural mix-up.
In 2020, the retailer Shein pulled a necklace featuring a left-facing swastika pendant from its website after receiving backlash on social media. The retailer apologized for the lack of sensitivity but noted that the swastika was a Buddhist symbol.
The main barrier to the effort to "reclaim", "restore", or "reassess" the swastika comes from the decades of extremely negative association in the Western world following the Nazi Party's adoption of it in the 1920s. As well, white supremacist groups still cling to the symbol as an icon of power and identity.
Many media organizations in the West also continue to describe neo-Nazi usage of the symbol as a swastika, or sometimes with the "Nazi" adjective written as "Nazi Swastika". Groups that oppose this media terminology do not wish to censor such usage, but rather to shift coverage of antisemitic and hateful events to describe the symbol in this context as a Hakenkreuz or 'hooked cross'.
, from Flags of the World. Retrieved 20 February 2006. Day, Matthew (23 April 2009) "Poland 'to ban' Che Guevara image" The Daily Telegraph Ethan McNern. Swastika ban left out of EU's racism law , The Scotsman, 30 January 2007
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