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The king cobra ( Ophiophagus hannah) is a of snakes to . With an average of and a record length of , it is the world's longest and among the heaviest. Under the genus Ophiophagus, it is not a despite its common name and some resemblance. Spanning from the Indian Subcontinent through Southeastern Asia to , the king cobra is widely distributed albeit not commonly seen.

Individuals have diversified colouration across its , from black with white strips to unbroken brownish grey, although after taxonomic re-evaluation, it is no longer the of its genus but is now a species complex; these differences in pattern and other aspects may cause the genus to be split into at least four species, spread across its large geographic range.

It chiefly , including , although other and are occasional prey items. This is the only ophidian that constructs an above-ground for its eggs, which are purposefully and meticulously gathered and protected by the female throughout the incubation period.

(2025). 9780195380378, Oxford University Press.
Typical of this elapid includes neck-flap spreading, head raising, hissing and sometimes charging. Capable of striking at a considerable range and height with an immense yield, from this species may induce rapid onset of neurotoxic and cytotoxic symptoms, requiring prompt administration. Despite the fearsome reputation, aggression toward humans usually only arises from an individual inadvertently exposing itself or being cornered; encounters happen through chance, including negative interactions.

Threatened by habitat destruction, it has been listed as Vulnerable on the IUCN Red List since 2010. Regarded as the national reptile of , it has an eminent position in the and folk traditions of , , and .

Etymology
The king cobra is also referred to by the common name "", especially in older literature. Hamadryas hannah was the scientific name used by Danish naturalist Theodore Edward Cantor in 1836 who described four king cobra specimens, three captured in the and one in the vicinity of . The origin of the species name hannah was not specified during description and has long been uncertain, but may potentially refer to Hannah Sarah Wallich, the eldest daughter of Cantor's uncle, botanist Nathaniel Wallich, who hosted Cantor during his studies in India.

Taxonomy
The genus Ophiophagus was proposed by Günther in 1864 in place of Hamadryas, as the genus Hamadryas was already used for the cracker butterflies. The name is derived from its propensity to eat snakes.
(2025). 9780691124360, Princeton University Press.
Ophiophagus hannah was accepted as the valid name for the king cobra by Charles Mitchill Bogert in 1945 who argued that it differs significantly from Naja species.

It has been suggested that three more king cobra species exist in addition to O. hannah, namely the Sunda king cobra O. bungarus, the Western Ghats king cobra ( O. kaalinga) and the Luzon king cobra ( O. salvatana). These distinct genetic lineages are geographically isolated and adapted to specific ecological regions.

Synonyms
In 1838, Cantor proposed the name Hamadryas ophiophagus for the king cobra and explained that it has dental features intermediate between the genera Naja and . Naia vittata proposed by Walter Elliot in 1840 was a king cobra caught offshore near that was floating in a basket. This provenance is disputed, as wild king cobras have never occurred near Chennai, and an analysis of this specimen has found it to be more similar to the northern king cobra. Hamadryas elaps proposed by Albert Günther in 1858 were king cobra specimens from the and . Günther considered both N. bungarus and N. vittata a variety of H. elaps. Naja ingens proposed by in 1882 was a king cobra captured near in northern Sumatra.

The earliest for the king cobra was bungaroides, given by in 1828 based on a juvenile specimen from . This description was improperly done, leaving it a at the time. However, Johann Georg Wagler validated the name in 1830 with a sufficient diagnosis, and also proposed a new genus for it, . In 1837, used the name Naja bungaroides for his description of the Australian broad-headed snake, which was later reclassified into Wagler's Hoplocephalus, and used the species name Naja bungarus for the king cobra. Since then, the species name Naja/ Hoplocephalus bungaroides, originally coined for the king cobra and improperly assigned to the broad-headed snake, became conflated with the broad-headed snake and used as the type species of Hoplocephalus, while the species name Naja bungarus was treated as a junior synonym of the king cobra (until its revival as the species name for the Sunda king cobra in 2024). This longstanding discrepancy, which breaks the principle of priority, was overlooked for nearly two centuries and only discovered in 2024. Due to the long presence of the names Ophiophagus hannah and Hoplocephalus bungaroides in the literature, which would be upended if these two species were reclassified based on this issue, it was decided to maintain the longstanding scientific names for both taxa and designate a new, accurate type specimen for the broad-headed snake.

Evolution
A using , and a multigene analysis showed that the king cobra was an early offshoot of a giving rise to the , rather than the Naja cobras.

A analysis of mitochondrial DNA showed that specimens from Surat Thani Province and Nakhon Si Thammarat Provinces in southern Thailand form a deeply genetically divergent from those in northern Thailand, which grouped with specimens from Myanmar and Guangdong in southern China.

Description
The king cobra's skin is with black and white bands on the trunk that converge to the head. The head is covered by 15 drab-coloured and black-edged shields (large scales consistently present between individuals). The is rounded, and the tongue black. It has two and 3–5 teeth in the upper jaw, and two rows of teeth in the lower jaw. The nostrils are between two shields. The large eyes have a golden iris and round pupils. Its hood is oval shaped and covered with olive green smooth scales and two black spots between the two lowest scales. Its cylindrical tail is yellowish green above and marked with black. It has a pair of large on top of the head, 17 to 19 rows of smooth oblique scales on the neck, and 15 rows on the body. Juveniles are black with chevron shaped white, yellow or buff bars that point towards the head. Adult king cobras are long. The longest known individual measured .
(1987). 9780806964614, Sterling. .
Ventral scales are uniformly oval shaped. Dorsal scales are placed in an oblique arrangement.
(2025). 9781119954293, Wiley.

The king cobra is sexually dimorphic, with males being larger and paler in particular during the breeding season. Males captured in measured up to and weighed up to . Females captured had a maximum length of and a weight of . The largest known king cobra was long and captured in . It differs from other cobra species by size and hood. It is larger, has a narrower and longer stripe on the neck.

(2025). 9781847730862, Bloomsbury.

Distribution and habitat
The king cobra has a wide distribution throughout . It occurs in elevations of from the in India and southern Nepal to the Brahmaputra River basin in and northeast India, down to Bangladesh, Myanmar, , Cambodia, Thailand, Laos, Vietnam; to the maritime Southeast Asian countries of Malaysia, Singapore, Indonesia and the Philippines.

In northern India, it has been recorded in and , and in the and regions of and . In northeast India, the king cobra has been recorded in northern , , , , Arunachal Pradesh, , and .

(2025). 9781482208481, CRC Press, Taylor and Francis Group.
In the , it occurs from and to coastal , and also in and southern , especially the . In the Western Ghats, it was recorded in , and , and also in . It also occurs on in the chain. It may have reached the furthest west of its distributional range in extreme western India & eastern Pakistan, in the vicinity of and . These populations have sometimes been thought to be the result of introduction by or transport along rivers, but are now more likely considered natural populations. However, it remains uncertain if any populations continue to persist there.

Behaviour and ecology
Like other snakes, a king cobra receives chemical information via its , which picks up scent particles and transfers them to a sensory receptor (Jacobson's organ) located in the roof of its mouth. Following , it swallows its prey whole. Because of its flexible jaws, it can swallow prey much larger than its head. It is considered because it hunts during the day, but has also been seen at night, albeit rarely.

Diet
The king cobra is an and dominant over all other snakes except large pythons. Its diet consists primarily of other snakes and , including , , , , green whip snake, , banded wolf snake and Blyth's reticulated snake. It also hunts Malabar pit viper and by following their odour trails. In Singapore, one was observed swallowing a . When food is scarce, it also feeds on other small vertebrates, such as birds, and lizards. In some cases, the cobra its prey using its muscular body, though this is uncommon. After a large meal, it may go for many months without another one because of its slow .

Antipredator behavior
The king cobra is not considered aggressive. It usually avoids humans and slinks off when disturbed, but is known to aggressively defend incubating eggs and attack intruders rapidly. When alarmed, it raises the front part of its body, extends the hood, shows the fangs and hisses loudly.
(1997). 9780520224872, University of California Press.
Wild king cobras encountered in Singapore appeared to be placid, but reared up and struck in self defense when cornered.

The king cobra can be easily irritated by closely approaching objects or sudden movements. When raising its body, the king cobra can still move forward to strike with a long distance, and people may misjudge the safe zone. It can deliver multiple bites in a single attack.

The hiss of the king cobra is a much lower pitch than many other snakes and many people thus liken its call to a "growl" rather than a hiss. While the hisses of most snakes are of a broad- span ranging from roughly 3,000 to 13,000  with a dominant frequency near 7,500 Hz, king cobra growls consist solely of frequencies below 2,500 Hz, with a dominant frequency near 600 Hz, a much lower-pitched frequency closer to that of a human voice. Comparative anatomical morphometric analysis has led to a discovery of tracheal that function as low-frequency resonating chambers in king cobra and its prey, the rat snake, both of which can make similar growls.

Reproduction
The female is for 50 to 59 days. The king cobra is the only snake that builds a nest using dry , starting from late March to late May. Most nests are located at the base of trees, are up to high in the centre and wide at the base. They consist of several layers and have mostly one chamber, into which the female lays eggs.
(2025). 9788192432175, Mizo Academy of Sciences.
Clutch size ranges from 7 to 43 eggs, with 6 to 38 eggs hatching after incubation periods of 66 to 105 days. Temperature inside nests is not steady but varies depending on elevation from . Females stay by their nests between two and 77 days. Hatchlings are between long and weigh .

The king cobra was shown to be capable of facultative . The parthenogenetic mechanism appears to be a variation of referred to as terminal fusion in which there is fusion of the meiotic products formed at the anaphase II stage of meiosis.

The venom of hatchlings is as potent as that of the adults. They may be brightly marked, but these colours often fade as they mature. They are alert and nervous, being highly aggressive if disturbed.

The average lifespan of a wild king cobra is about 20 years.

Venom
Composition
of the king cobra, produced by the postorbital , consists primarily of three-finger toxins (3FTx) and snake venom metalloproteinases (SVMPs).

Of all the 3FTx, are the predominant and most lethal components when and also exhibit toxicological activities. It is reported that of its venom varies significantly, depending upon the age and locality of an individual. Clinical is not widely observed, nor is present among patients bitten by this species, presumably due to the low abundance of the toxins.

SVMPs are the second most protein family isolated from the king cobra's venom, accounting from 11.9% to 24.4% of total venom proteins. The abundance is much higher than that of most which is usually less than 1%. This protein family includes principal toxins responsible for damage and interference with , contributing to and caused by envenomation of . While there are such haemorrhagins isolated from the king cobra's venom, they only induce species-sensitive haemorrhagic and lethal activities on rabbits and hares, but with minimal effects on mice. Clinical pathophysiology of the king cobra's SVMPs has yet to be well studied, although its substantial quantity suggests involvement in tissue damage and necrosis as a result of inflammatory and proteolytic activities, which are instrumental for foraging and digestive purposes.

Ohanin, a minor vespryn protein component specific to this species, causes and in experimental mice. It is believed that it contributes to neurotoxicity on the central nervous system of the victim.

Clinical management
A king cobra's bite, and subsequent envenomation, is an immediate medical emergency in humans or domesticated animals, as, if not treated as soon as possible, death can occur in as little as 30 minutes. Local symptoms include dusky discolouration of skin, and pain; in severe cases, swelling extends proximally, with and tissue sloughing that may require amputation. Onset of general symptoms follows while the venom is targeting the victim's central nervous system, resulting in blurred vision, vertigo, , and eventual . If not treated promptly, it may progress to cardiovascular collapse and, subsequently, . Death soon follows due to respiratory failure, among other simultaneous and varied system and organ failures.

Polyvalent of origin is produced by Haffkine Institute and King Institute of Preventive Medicine and Research in India. A polyvalent antivenom produced by the Thai Society can effectively neutralise venom of the king cobra. Proper and immediate treatments are critical to avoid death. Successful precedents include a client who recovered and was discharged in 10 days after being treated by accurate antivenom and .

It can deliver up to 420 mg venom in dry weight (400–600 mg overall) per bite, with a toxicity in mice of 1.28 mg/kg through intravenous injection, 1.5 to 1.7 mg/kg through subcutaneous injection, and 1.644 mg/kg through intraperitoneal injection.

(1981). 9780896731103, Leipzig Publishing; English version published by Exeter Books (1982). .
(1995). 9780849344893, CRC Press.
For research purposes, up to 1 g of venom was obtained through milking.

In and , a (or liquid blend) of ( Curcuma longa) and other herbs may be used in against king cobra bites, but there is currently no clinical evidence that this is effective in the treatment or prevention of envenomation.

(2025). 9780801898754, Johns Hopkins University Press.

Relationship with humans
Conservation
In Southeast Asia, the king cobra is threatened foremost by habitat destruction owing to and expansion of agricultural land. It is also threatened by wildlife smuggling, as well as by , then sold as or turned into snake leather, and for use in traditional Chinese medicine.

The king cobra is listed in CITES Appendix II. It is protected in China and Vietnam. In India, it is placed under Schedule II of Wildlife Protection Act, 1972. Killing a king cobra is punished with imprisonment of up to six years. In the , king cobras (locally known as banakon) are included under the list of threatened species in the country. It is protected under the Wildlife Resources Conservation and Protection Act (Republic Act No. 9147), which criminalises the killing, trade, and consumption of threatened species with certain exceptions (like indigenous subsistence hunting or immediate threats to human life), with a maximum penalty of two years imprisonment and a fine of 20,000.

Cultural significance
The king cobra has an eminent position in the and of India, Bangladesh, Sri Lanka and Myanmar.
(1980). 9780684166261, Charles Scribner's Sons. .
A ritual in Myanmar involves a king cobra and a female snake charmer. The charmer is a who is usually tattooed with three and kisses the snake on the top of its head at the end of the ritual. Members of the clan tattoo themselves with ink mixed with cobra venom on their upper bodies in a weekly inoculation that they believe would them from the snake, though no scientific evidence supports this.
(1991). 9780866227490, TFH Publications.
(2025). 9781450221276, iUniverse. .
It is regarded as the national reptile of India. In India, the king cobra is believed to possess exceptional memory; according to a myth, the killer of a king cobra stays in the eyes of the snake as an image, which is later picked up by the snake's partner and used to hunt down the killer for . Because of this myth, whenever a cobra is killed, especially in India, the head, if not the entire body, is either crushed or burned to destroy the eyes completely. In Bangkok's Bang Khun Thian district is a shrine to the king cobra by the Rama II Road that was built after the nest and young of a large king cobra was destroyed during the construction of the road; the overgrown area behind the shrine is still thought to harbour several large king cobras.

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