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The Janapadas () () (c. 1100–600 BCE) were the , aristocratic republics (Gaṇasaṅgha) and (sāmarājya) of the in the Indian subcontinent. The Vedic period reaches from the late Bronze Age into the Iron Age: from about 1500 BCE to the 6th century BCE. With the rise of sixteen ("great janapadas"), most of the states were by more powerful neighbours, although some remained independent.

.]]Janapadas were the kingdoms and republics of Vedic India from the late Bronze Age to the Iron Age (c. 1200 BCE to 6th century BCE). Emerging from settled agricultural communities, they were originally named after the dominant "Jana" (people/tribe). With the spread of iron tools, these smaller kingdoms grew in size and power, eventually evolving into the larger Mahajanapadas.

Etymology
The term janapada is a compound term, composed of two words: jana and padna. Jana means "person" or "people" (cf. genus, cognate kin). The word pada means "foot" (cf. Latin cognate pedis); from its earliest attestation, the word has had a double meaning of "realm, territory" and "subject population" (cf. Hittite pedan, "place"). Linguist George Dunkel compares the andrapodon "slave", to *pédom "fetters" (i.e. "what is attached to the feet"). Sanskrit padám, usually taken to mean "footprint, trail", diverges in accent from the PIE reconstruction. For the sense of "population of the land", padasya janas, the inverted padajana would be expected. A primary meaning of "place of the people", janasya padam, would not explain why the compound is of gender. An original "land and people" is conceivable, but a dual inflection would be expected.

History and evolution
Literary evidence suggests that the janapadas flourished between 1100 BCE and 500 BCE. The earliest mention of the term "janapada" occurs in the Aitareya (8.14.4) and Shatapatha (13.4.2.17) texts.

In the , the term jana denotes a tribe, whose members believed in a shared ancestry. The janas were headed by a king ( ). The council (s amiti) was a common assembly of the jana members, and had the power to elect or dethrone the king. The s abha was a smaller assembly of wise elders, who advised the king.

The janas were originally semi-nomadic communities, but gradually came to be associated with specific territories as they became less mobile. Various kulas (clans) developed within the jana, each with its own chief. Gradually, the necessities of defence and warfare prompted the janas to form military groupings, headed by janapadins ( warriors). This model ultimately evolved into the establishment of political units known as the janapadas.

While some of the janas evolved into their own janapadas, others appear to have mixed together to form a common Janapada. According to the political scientist Sudama Misra, the name of the janapada suggests that it was a fusion of five ( pancha) janas. Some janas (such as Aja and Mutiba), mentioned in the earliest texts do not find a mention in the later texts. Misra theorizes that these smaller janas were conquered by and assimilated into the larger janas.

Janapadas were gradually dissolved around 500 BCE. Their disestablishment can be attributed to the rise of imperial powers (such as Magadha) in Northern India, as well as foreign invasions (such as those by the Persians and the Greeks) in the north-western Indian subcontinent.

Nature
The Janapada were highest political unit in Northern India during this period; these polities were usually monarchical (though some followed a form of republicanism) and succession was hereditary. The head of a kingdom was a king ( ). A chief priest ( ) and a commander of the army ( ) who would assist the king. There were also two other political bodies: the ( samiti), thought to be a council of elders and the sabhā, a general assembly of the entire people.
(1994). 9788120601246, Asian Educational Services. .

The boundaries of the kingdoms
Often rivers formed the boundaries of two neighboring kingdoms, as was the case between the northern and southern and between the western ('s kingdom) and eastern ('s kingdom) . Sometimes, large forests, which were larger than the kingdoms themselves, formed their boundaries as was the case of , the Naimisha Aranyam between Panchala and kingdoms. Mountain ranges like , and also formed their boundaries.

The cities and villages
Some kingdoms possessed a main city that served as its capital. For example, the capital of Pandava's kingdom was and the Kaurava's kingdom was . was the capital of Northern Panchala whereas was the capital of Southern Panchala. had its capital at . Apart from the main city or capital, where the palace of the ruling king was situated, there were small towns and villages spread throughout the kingdom, from which tax was collected by officers appointed by the king. What the king offered in return was protection from attack by other kings and bandit tribes, as well as from invading foreign nomadic tribes. The king also enforced law and order in his kingdom by punishing the guilty.
(2026). 9788120820852, Motilal Banarsidass. .

Administration
The Janapadas had rulers. Based on literary references, historians have theorized that the Janapadas were administered by the following assemblies in addition to the king:

Sabha (Council)
An assembly more akin to a council of qualified members or elders (mostly men) who advised the king and performed judicial functions. In the ganas or republican Janapadas called Gaṇasaṅgha with no kings, the council of elders also handled administration.

Paura Sabha (Executive Council)
The Paura Sabha was the assembly of the capital city ( pura), and handled municipal administration.

Samiti (General Assembly)
A samiti generally consisted of all adults of the republic or the city-state. A samiti was congregated when a matter of importance had to be communicated to the entire city-state. A samiti was also held at the time of festivals to plan, raise revenue and conduct the celebrations.

Janapada
The Janapada assembly represented the rest of the Janapada, possibly the villages, which were administered by a gramini, or grāmaṇī.

Some historians have also theorized that there was a common assembly called the "Paura-Janapada", but others such as Ram Sharan Sharma disagree with this theory. The existence of Paura and Janapada itself is a controversial matter.

(1991). 9788120808270, Motilal Banarsidass. .

Indian nationalist historians such as K. P. Jayaswal have argued that the existence of such assemblies is evidence of prevalence of democracy in ancient India.

(2026). 9788190246965, Manish Prakashan. .
V. B. Misra notes that the contemporary society was divided into the four varnas (besides the or outcastes), and the Kshatriya ruling class had all the political rights. Not all the citizens in a janapada had political rights. Based on Gautama's Dharmasutra, Jayaswal theorized that the low-caste could be members of the Paura assembly. According to A. S. Altekar, this theory is based on a misunderstanding of the text: the term "Paura" in the relevant portion of the Dharmasutra refers to a resident of the city, not a member of the city assembly.
(2026). 9788120810099, Motilal Banarsidass. .
Jayaswal also argued that the members of the supposed Paura-Janapada assembly acted as counselors to the king, and made other important decisions such as imposing taxes in times of emergency. Once again, Altekar argued that these conclusions are based on misinterpretations of the literary evidence. For example, Jayaswal has wrongly translated the word "amantra" in a verse as "to offer advice"; it actually means "to bid farewell" in proper context.

Interactions between kingdoms
There was no border security for a kingdom and border disputes were very rare. One king might conduct a military campaign (often designated as Digvijaya meaning conquest of the four directions) and defeat another king in a battle, lasting for a day. The defeated king would acknowledge the supremacy of the victorious king. The defeated king might sometimes be asked to give a tribute to the victorious king. Such tribute would be collected only once, not on a periodic basis. The defeated king, in most cases, would be free to rule his own kingdom, without maintaining any contact with the victorious king. There was no annexation of one kingdom by another. Often a military general ( ) conducted these campaigns on behalf of his king. A military campaign and tribute collection was often associated with a great sacrifice (like or ) conducted in the kingdom of the campaigning king. The defeated king also was invited to attend these sacrifice ceremonies, as a friend and ally.

New kingdoms
New kingdoms were formed when a major clan produced more than one king in a generation. The Kuru clan of Kings was very successful in governing throughout North India with their numerous kingdoms, which were formed after each successive generation. Similarly, the clan of kings formed numerous kingdoms in Central India.

Cultural differences
Parts of western India were dominated by tribes who had a slightly different culture, considered non-Vedic by the mainstream prevailing in the and Panchala kingdoms. Similarly, there were some tribes in the eastern regions of India considered to be in this category. Tribes with non-Vedic culture — especially those of barbaric nature — were collectively termed as . Very little was mentioned in the ancient literature about the kingdoms to the North, beyond the . was mentioned as a kingdom known as Cina, often grouped with Mleccha kingdoms.

List of Janapadas
Vedic literature
The mention five sub-divisions of ancient India:

  • Udichya (Northern region)
  • Prachya (Eastern region)
  • (Southern region)
  • Pratichya (Western region)
  • (Central region)

The Vedic literature mentions the following janas or janapadas:

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Puranic literature
The mention seven sub-divisions of ancient India:

  • Udichya (Northern region)
  • Prachya (Eastern region)
  • (Southern region)
  • (Western region)
  • Madhya-desha (Central region)
  • Parvata-shrayin ()
  • Vindhya-prashtha ()

According to research by political scientist Sudama Misra, the Puranic texts mention the following janapadas:

Apanga ( Vayu), Aupadha ( Markandeya), Alasa ( Vamana)
Kuhaka ( Markandeya), Kuhuka ( Vamana)
Anibhadra ( Markandeya), Alibhadra ( Vamana)
Āvantya Markandeya, Vamana
Andha ( Markandeya)
Andhāraka ( Markandeya)
Central and Eastern in Vamana
Uttaranarmada ( Markandeya), Sunarmada ( Vamana)
Arūpa ( Matsya), Annaja ( Vayu)
Purandhra ( Matsya), Aparānta ( Markandeya)
Atharva ( Markandeya)
Āraṇya ( Markandeya), Āṭavya ( Brahmanda)
Atri ( Matsya, Brahmanda)
Central and Vindhyan in Matsya
Pahlava ( Vayu), Bahudha ( Vamana)
Central and Northern in Vamana
Bhanukaccha ( Vayu), Bhīrukahcha ( Markandeya), Dārukachchha ( Vamana), Sahakaccha ( Brahmanda)
Gopta ( Vamana)
Bāhya ( Matsya)
Suhmottara ( Matsya), Samantara ( Brahmanda)
Attakhaṇḍika ( Matsya), Sakheṭaka ( Vamana)
Kevala ( Markandeya)
Pīna ( Vayu), Veṇa ( Vamana)
Caulya ( Vayu), Cauḍa ( Vamana); Southern and Eastern in Brahmanda
Cūḍika ( Vamana), Vindhyacūlika ( Brahmanda)
Himalayan and Northern in Vayu and Markandeya
Karseruka ( Vayu), Kuśeruka ( Markandeya)
Daśanāmaka ( Matsya), Daśamānika ( Vayu), Daṅśana ( Vamana)
Hrada ( Vayu), Bhadra ( Brahmanda)
Durgala ( Brahmanda)
Govinda ( Vayu), Gomanta ( Markandeya), Mananda ( Vamana)
Sarvaga (Himalayan) in Matsya; Haṃsamārga (Northern and Himalayan) in Vayu and Markandeya; Karnamārga (Northern) and Haṃsamārga (Himalayan) in Vamana; Haṃsamārga (Himalayan) Haṃsabhaṅga (Northern) in Brahmanda
Pūrṇa ( Vayu), Ūrṇa ( Markandeya), Cūrṇa ( Vamana), Hūṇa ( Brahmanda)
Hāramūrtika ( Matsya), Hārapūrika ( Vayu), Sāmuṣaka ( Vamana)
Samudgaka ( Matsya), Sahūdaka ( Vayu), Sakṛtraka ( Markandeya), Śahuhūka ( Vamana), Sahuhūka ( Brahmanda)
Vaisakya ( Markandeya)
Jāṇgala ( Matsya), Juhuḍa ( Vayu), Jāguḍa ( Markandeya)
Jñeyamallaka ( Markandeya), Aṅgiyamarṣaka ( Vamana), Gopapārthiva ( Brahmanda)
Kāchchhīka ( Matsya), Kacchīya ( Vayu), Kāśmīra ( Markandeya), Kacchipa ( Brahmanda)
Arkalinga ( Markandeya)
Kālītaka ( Vayu), Anīkaṭa ( Markandeya), Tālīkaṭa ( Vamana), Kuntala ( Brahmanda)
Kolavana ( Vayu), Kālivala ( Markandeya), Vāridhana ( Vamana), Kalivana ( Brahmanda)
Kanṭakāra ( Matsya), Raddhakaṭaka ( Vayu), Bahubhadra ( Markandeya), Kādhara ( Vamana)
Paraṣkara ( Vayu), Kaṭhākṣara ( Markandeya), Karandhara ( Brahmanda)
Southern and Vindhyan ( Matsya)
Kaikeyya ( Matsya), Kaikeya ( Markandeya), Kaikeya ( Vamana)
Khaśa ( Vamana), Śaka ( Brahmanda)
Kirāta ( Matsya, Central and Himalayan)
Kikarava ( Vamana)
Ulūta ( Brahmanda)
Only Central in Markandeya; only Southern in Vamana and Brahmanda
Kupatha ( Matsya), Kumana ( Vayu), Kusuma ( Markandeya), Kumārāda ( Vamana), Kṣapaṇa ( Brahmanda)
Pulinda ( Matsya), Kaliṅga ( Markandeya), Kalinda ( Brahmanda)
Kuntala ( ( Matsya, only Central), Kuṇḍala ( Vamana)
Kṣupaṇa ( Vayu), Kurava ( Markandeya)
Kaurava ( Vamana)
Kuśaprāvaraṇa ( Vayu), Kuntaprāvaraṇa ( Markandeya), Apaprāvaraṇa ( Brahmanda)
Lamaka ( Brahmanda)
Bhadraka ( Vayu and Vamana), Maṇḍala ( Brahmanda)
Mudgara ( Markandeya), Mudagaraka ( Brahmanda)
Central and Eastern in Vayu and Brahmanda
Navarāṣṭra ( Matsya)
Māhiṣaka ( Vayu and Markandeya)
Mālava ( Matsya), Manada ( Markandeya), Mansāda ( Vamana)
Mallavarṇaka ( Matsya), Mālavartin ( Vayu), Mānavartika ( Markandeya), Baladantika ( Vamana)
Ekalavya ( Vamana), Malada ( Brahmanda)
Śālva ( Matsya), Māla ( Vayu), Māia ( Vamana)
Mālava ( Vayu), Mālava ( Markandeya)
Yatstha ( Vamana)
Maunika ( Vayu)
Rokala ( Vayu), Kevala ( Markandeya)
Sūtika ( Matsya), Mūṣikāda ( Vamana), Mūṣika ( Brahmanda)
Naiṣika ( Markandeya)
Vanadāraka ( Markandeya), Nalakāraka ( Vamana)
Vāsikya ( Matsya), Nāsikānta ( Vamana), Nāsika ( Brahmanda)
Nigarhara ( Vayu), Nihāra ( Markandeya)
Niṣāda ( Vayu)
Pallava (all except Vayu)
Puṇḍra ( Markandeya), Puṇḍra ( Vamana)
Parita ( Vayu), Pāravata ( Vamana)
Śatapatheśvara ( Vayu)
Paunika ( Vayu), Paurika ( Markandeya), Paurika ( Vamana), Paurika ( Brahmanda)
Puṣkala ( Markandeya)
Plavaṅga ( Matsya and Brahmanda)
Prāviṣeya ( Brahmanda)
Harṣavardhana ( Markandeya), Aṅgalaukika ( Vamana), Aṅgalaukika ( Brahmanda)
Kulīya ( Matsya), Pulinda ( Markandeya), Pulīya ( Vamana), Pauleya ( Brahmanda)
Muṇḍa ( Vayu), Madra ( Markandeya), Pṛsadhra ( Vamana)
Māṭhara ( Markandeya), Māṭharodha ( Vamana)
Kūpasa ( Vayu), Rūpapa ( Markandeya), Rūpaka ( Brahmanda)
Pidika ( Vayu), Śūlika ( Markandeya), Jhillika ( Brahmanda)
Saurāṣṭra ( Matsya)
Śailūṣa ( Markandeya), Jānuka ( Vamana)
Bara ( Vayu), Śarava ( Brahmanda)
Central in Vamana
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Śatadrava ( Vamana)
Padgama ( Matsya), Ṣaṭsura ( Vayu), Paṭava ( Markandeya), Bahela ( Vamana)
Sūrpāraka ( Vayu), Sūryāraka ( Markandeya), Sūryāraka ( Brahmanda)
Surāla ( Vayu), Sumīna ( Markandeya), Sinīla ( Vamana), Kirāta ( Brahmanda)
Suhya ( Brahmanda)
Taittirika ( Matsya), Turasita ( Vayu), Kurumini ( Markandeya), Tubhamina ( Vamana), Karīti ( Brahmanda)
Talagāna ( Matsya), Stanapa ( Vayu), Tāvakarāma ( Vamana), Tālaśāla ( Brahmanda)
Chamara ( Matsya), Tomara ( Vamana), Tāmara ( Brahmanda)
Apatha ( Matsya), Gurguṇa ( Markandeya)
Tuṅgana ( Markandeya)
Svāpada ( Markandeya), Tāpaka ( Brahmanda)
Tāmasa ( Markandeya and Vamana)
Tumbura ( Vayu), Tumbula ( Markandeya), Barbara ( Brahmanda)
Tumbura ( Markandeya), Turaga ( Vamana), Tuhuṇḍa ( Brahmanda)
Śauṇḍikera ( Matsya), Tuṣṭikāra ( Markandeya)
Tukhāra ( Markandeya)
Ulida ( Vamana), Kulinda ( Brahmanda)
Huṇa ( Vayu)
Eastern and Central in Brahmanda
Uttama ( Brahmanda)
Girigahvara ( Brahmanda)
Vājivasika ( Matsya), Banavāsika ( Vayu), Namavāsika ( Markandeya), Mahāśaka ( Vamana)
Central and Eastern in Vamana
Mārgavageya ( Matsya), Rāṅgeya ( Markandeya), Vojñeya ( Brahmanda)
Vaidika ( Vayu), Kholliśa ( Vamana)
Vindhyapuṣika ( Matsya), Vindhyaśaileya ( Markandeya), Vindhyamaulīya ( Brahmanda)
Vīrahotra ( Markandeya), Vītahotra ( Vamana)
Gavala ( Markandeya)

Sanskrit epics
The of the mentions around 230 janapadas, while the mentions only a few of these. Unlike the Puranas, the Mahabharata does not specify any geographical divisions of ancient India, but does support the classification of certain janapadas as southern or northern.

Buddhist canon
The Buddhist canonical texts - , , , although with some differences between them, primarily refer to the following 16 ("great janapadas"):

Jain text
The Jain text Vyākhyāprajñapti or also mentions 16 important janapadas, but many names differ from the ones mentioned in the Buddhist texts.

  1. Accha
  3. Avaha
  4. (Vajji or Vrijji)
  5. Banga ()
  6. Kasi (Kashi)
  7. Kochcha
  9. Ladha (Lata)
  10. Magadha
  11. Malavaka
  12. Malaya
  13. Moli (Malla)
  15. Sambhuttara
  16. ()

See also

Bibliography

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