Geography (from Ancient Greek: γεωγραφία, geographia, literally "earth description") is a field of science devoted to the study of the lands, features, inhabitants, and phenomena of the Earth and Solar System
Geography is often defined in terms of two branches: human geography and physical geography. Human geography is concerned with the study of people and their communities, cultures, economies, and interactions with the environment by studying their relations with and across space and place. Physical geography is concerned with the study of processes and patterns in the natural environment like the atmosphere, hydrosphere, biosphere, and geosphere.
The four historical traditions in geographical research are spatial analysis of natural and the human phenomena, area studies of places and regions, studies of human-land relationships, and the . Geography has been called "the world discipline" and "the bridge between the human and the physical sciences".
Introduction
Geography is a systematic study of the Universe and its features. Traditionally, geography has been associated with
cartography and place names. Although many geographers are trained in
toponymy and
Cartography, this is not their main preoccupation. Geographers study the
space and the temporal database distribution of phenomena, processes, and features as well as the
interaction of humans and their environment. Because space and place affect a variety of topics, such as
economics,
health,
climate,
and
, geography is highly interdisciplinary. The interdisciplinary nature of the geographical approach depends on an attentiveness to the relationship between physical and human phenomena and its spatial patterns.
Geography as a discipline can be split broadly into two main subsidiary fields: human geography and physical geography. The former largely focuses on the built environment and how humans create, view, manage, and influence space. The latter examines the natural environment, and how , climate, soil, water, and produce and interact. The difference between these approaches led to a third field, environmental geography, which combines physical and human geography and concerns the interactions between the environment and humans.
Branches
Physiography
Physical geography (or physiography) focuses on geography as an
Earth science. It aims to understand the physical problems and the issues of
lithosphere,
hydrosphere, atmosphere,
pedosphere, and global
flora and
fauna patterns (
biosphere). Physical geography is the study of earth's
,
climate,
atmosphere,
soil, streams, landforms, and
.
File:Línea de Wallace.jpg|Biogeography
File:Cyclone Catarina from the ISS on March 26 2004.JPG|Climatology & meteorology
File:90 mile beach.jpg|Coastal geography
File:Gavin Plant.JPG|Environmental management
File:Meridian convergence and spehrical excess.png|Geodesy
File:Delicate Arch LaSalle.jpg|Geomorphology
File:Receding glacier-en.svg|Glaciology
File:Meander.svg|Hydrology & hydrography
File:Khajuraho-landscape.jpg|Landscape ecology
File:World11.jpg|Oceanography
File:Soil profile.jpg|Pedology
File:Pangea animation 03.gif|Palaeogeography
File:Milankovitch Variations sv.png|Quaternary science
Anthropogeography
Human geography is a branch of geography that focuses on the study of patterns and processes that shape the human society. It encompasses the
human,
politics,
culture,
social, and
economics aspects.
File:Qichwa conchucos 01.jpg|Cultural geography
File:Pepsi in India.jpg|Development geography
File:Christaller model 1.jpg|Economic geography
File:Star of life.svg|Health geography
File:British Empire 1897.jpg|Historical & Time geography
File:UN General Assembly.jpg|Political geog. & Geopolitics
File:Pyramide Comores.PNG|Pop. geog. or Demography
File:ReligionSymbol.svg|Religion geography
File:US-hoosier-family.jpg|Social geography
File:Gare du Nord USFRT (Paris Metro).png|Transportation geography
File:Tourists-2.jpg|Tourism geography
File:New-York-Jan2005.jpg|Urban geography
Various approaches to the study of human geography have also arisen through time and include:
Integrated geography
Integrated geography is concerned with the description of the spatial interactions between humans and the natural world. It requires an understanding of the traditional aspects of physical and human geography, like the ways that human societies conceptualize the environment. Integrated geography has emerged as a bridge between human and physical geography, as a result of the increasing specialisation of the two sub-fields. Since the changing of the human relationship with the environment as a result of
globalization and technological change, a new approach was needed to understand the changing and dynamic relationship. Examples of areas of research in environmental geography include: emergency management, environmental management,
sustainability, and political ecology.
Geomatics
Geomatics is concerned with the application of computers to the traditional spatial techniques used in
cartography and
topography. Geomatics emerged from the quantitative revolution in geography in the mid-1950s. Today, geomatics methods include
spatial analysis, geographic information systems (GIS),
remote sensing, and global positioning systems (GPS). Geomatics has led to a revitalization of some geography departments, especially in
Northern America where the subject had a declining status during the 1950s.
Regional geography
A branch which is concerned with the description of the unique characteristics of the earth's surface, resulting in each area from the combination of its complete natural or elements, as of physical and human environment. The main aim is to understand, or define the uniqueness, or character of a particular region that consists of natural as well as human elements. Attention is paid also to
regionalisation, which covers the proper techniques of space
delimitation into regions.
Related fields
-
Interplanetary sciences: While the discipline of geography is normally concerned with the Earth, the term can also be informally used to describe the study of other worlds, such as the of the Solar System and even beyond. The study of systems larger than the Earth itself usually forms part of Astronomy or Cosmology. The study of other planets is usually called planetary science. Alternative terms such as areology (the study of Mars) have been proposed but are not widely used.
-
Regional science: In the 1950s, the regional science movement led by Walter Isard arose to provide a more quantitative and analytical base to geographical questions, in contrast to the descriptive tendencies of traditional geography programs. Regional science comprises the body of knowledge in which the spatial dimension plays a fundamental role, such as regional science, resource management, location theory, urban planning and regional planning, transport and communication, human geography, population distribution, landscape ecology, and environmental quality.
-
Urban planning, regional planning, and spatial planning: Use the science of geography to assist in determining how to develop (or not develop) the land to meet particular criteria, such as safety, beauty, economic opportunities, the preservation of the built or natural heritage, and so on. The planning of towns, cities, and rural areas may be seen as applied geography.
Techniques
As spatial interrelationships are key to this synoptic science,
are a key tool. Classical
cartography has been joined by a more modern approach to geographical analysis, computer-based geographic information systems (GIS).
In their study, geographers use four interrelated approaches:
-
Systematic – Groups geographical knowledge into categories that can be explored globally.
-
Regional – Examines systematic relationships between categories for a specific region or location on the planet.
-
Descriptive – Simply specifies the locations of features and populations.
-
Analytical – Asks why we find features and populations in a specific geographic area.
Cartography
Cartography studies the representation of the Earth's surface with abstract symbols (map making). Although other subdisciplines of geography rely on maps for presenting their analyses, the actual making of maps is abstract enough to be regarded separately. Cartography has grown from a collection of drafting techniques into an actual science.
Cartographers must learn cognitive psychology and ergonomics to understand which symbols convey information about the Earth most effectively, and behaviorism to induce the readers of their maps to act on the information. They must learn geodesy and fairly advanced mathematics to understand how the shape of the Earth affects the distortion of map symbols projected onto a flat surface for viewing. It can be said, without much controversy, that cartography is the seed from which the larger field of geography grew. Most geographers will cite a childhood fascination with maps as an early sign they would end up in the field.
Geographic information systems
Geographic information systems (GIS) deal with the storage of information about the Earth for automatic retrieval by a computer, in an accurate manner appropriate to the information's purpose. In addition to all of the other subdisciplines of geography, GIS specialists must understand
computer science and
database systems. GIS has revolutionized the field of cartography: nearly all mapmaking is now done with the assistance of some form of GIS software. GIS also refers to the science of using GIS software and GIS techniques to represent, analyse, and predict the spatial relationships. In this context, GIS stands for
geographic information science.
Remote sensing
Remote sensing is the
science of obtaining information about Earth features from measurements made at a distance. Remotely sensed data comes in many forms, such as satellite imagery, aerial photography, and data obtained from hand-held sensors. Geographers increasingly use remotely sensed data to obtain information about the Earth's
land surface, ocean, and atmosphere, because it: (a) supplies objective information at a variety of spatial scales (local to global), (b) provides a synoptic view of the area of interest, (c) allows access to distant and inaccessible sites, (d) provides spectral information outside the visible portion of the electromagnetic spectrum, and (e) facilitates studies of how features/areas change over time. Remotely sensed data may be analysed either independently of, or in conjunction with other digital data layers (e.g., in a geographic information system).
Quantitative methods
Geostatistics deal with
Numerical data analysis, specifically the application of statistical methodology to the exploration of geographic phenomena. Geostatistics is used extensively in a variety of fields, including
hydrology,
geology,
petroleum exploration, weather analysis,
urban planning,
logistics, and
epidemiology. The mathematical basis for geostatistics derives from
cluster analysis, linear discriminant analysis and non-parametric statistical tests, and a variety of other subjects. Applications of geostatistics rely heavily on geographic information systems, particularly for the
interpolation (estimate) of unmeasured points. Geographers are making notable contributions to the method of quantitative techniques.
Qualitative methods
Geographic qualitative methods, or ethnographical research techniques, are used by human geographers. In cultural geography there is a tradition of employing qualitative research techniques, also used in
anthropology and
sociology. Participant observation and in-depth interviews provide human geographers with qualitative data.
History
The oldest known
date back to
ancient Babylon from the 9th century BC. The best known
world map, however, is the
Imago Mundi of 600 BC. The map as reconstructed by
Eckhard Unger shows
Babylon on the
Euphrates, surrounded by a circular landmass showing
Assyria,
Urartu, and several cities, in turn surrounded by a "bitter river" (
Oceanus), with seven islands arranged around it so as to form a seven-pointed star. The accompanying text mentions seven outer regions beyond the encircling ocean. The descriptions of five of them have survived. In contrast to the
Imago Mundi, an earlier Babylonian
world map dating back to the 9th century BC depicted Babylon as being further north from the center of the world, though it is not certain what that center was supposed to represent.
The ideas of Anaximander (c. 610–545 BC): considered by later Greek writers to be the true founder of geography, come to us through fragments quoted by his successors. Anaximander is credited with the invention of the gnomon, the simple, yet efficient Greek instrument that allowed the early measurement of latitude. Thales is also credited with the prediction of eclipses. The foundations of geography can be traced to the ancient cultures, such as the ancient, medieval, and early modern Chinese. The ancient Greece, who were the first to explore geography as both art and science, achieved this through Cartography, Greek philosophy, and Literature, or through Mathematics. There is some debate about who was the first person to assert that the Spherical Earth in shape, with the credit going either to Parmenides or Pythagoras. Anaxagoras was able to demonstrate that the profile of the Earth was circular by explaining . However, he still believed that the Earth was a flat disk, as did many of his contemporaries. One of the first estimates of the radius of the Earth was made by Eratosthenes.
The first rigorous system of latitude and longitude lines is credited to Hipparchus. He employed a sexagesimal system that was derived from Babylonian mathematics. The meridians were sub-divided into 360°, with each degree further subdivided into 60 (minutes). To measure the longitude at different locations on Earth, he suggested using eclipses to determine the relative difference in time. The extensive mapping by the Roman Empire as they explored new lands would later provide a high level of information for Ptolemy to construct detailed . He extended the work of Hipparchus, using a grid system on his maps and adopting a length of 56.5 miles for a degree.
From the 3rd century onwards, Chinese methods of geographical study and writing of geographical literature became much more comprehensive than what was found in Europe at the time (until the 13th century). Chinese geographers such as Liu An, Pei Xiu, Jia Dan, Shen Kuo, Fan Chengda, Zhou Daguan, and Xu Xiake wrote important treatises, yet by the 17th century advanced ideas and methods of Western-style geography were adopted in China.
During the Middle Ages, the fall of the Roman empire led to a shift in the evolution of geography from Europe to the Muslim world. Muslim geographers such as Muhammad al-Idrisi produced detailed world maps (such as Tabula Rogeriana), while other geographers such as Yaqut al-Hamawi, Abu Rayhan Biruni, Ibn Battuta, and Ibn Khaldun provided detailed accounts of their journeys and the geography of the regions they visited. Turkish geographer, Mahmud al-Kashgari drew a world map on a linguistic basis, and later so did Piri Reis (Piri Reis map). Further, Islamic scholars translated and interpreting the earlier works of the Ancient Rome and the ancient Greece and established the House of Wisdom in Baghdad for this purpose. Abū Zayd al-Balkhī, originally from Balkh, founded the "Balkhī school" of terrestrial mapping in Baghdad. Suhrāb, a late tenth century Muslim geographer accompanied a book of geographical coordinates, with instructions for making a rectangular world map with equirectangular projection or cylindrical equidistant projection.
Abu Rayhan Biruni (976–1048) first described a polar equi-azimuthal equidistant projection of the celestial sphere. He was regarded as the most skilled when it came to mapping cities and measuring the distances between them, which he did for many cities in the Middle East and the Indian subcontinent. He often combined astronomical readings and mathematical equations, in order to develop methods of pin-pointing locations by recording degrees of latitude and longitude. He also developed similar techniques when it came to measuring the heights of , depths of the , and expanse of the horizon. He also discussed human geography and the planetary habitability of the Earth. He also calculated the latitude of Kath, Khwarezm, using the maximum altitude of the Sun, and solved a complex Geodesy equation in order to accurately compute the Earth's circumference, which was close to modern values of the Earth's circumference. His estimate of 6,339.9 km for the Earth radius was only 16.8 km less than the modern value of 6,356.7 km. In contrast to his predecessors, who measured the Earth's circumference by sighting the Sun simultaneously from two different locations, al-Biruni developed a new method of using trigonometry calculations, based on the angle between a plain and mountain top, which yielded more accurate measurements of the Earth's circumference, and made it possible for it to be measured by a single person from a single location.
The European Age of Discovery during the 16th and the 17th centuries, where many new lands were discovered and accounts by European explorers such as Christopher Columbus, Marco Polo, and James Cook revived a desire for both accurate geographic detail, and more solid theoretical foundations in Europe. The problem facing both explorers and geographers was finding the latitude and longitude of a geographic location. The problem of latitude was solved long ago but that of longitude remained; agreeing on what zero meridian should be was only part of the problem. It was left to John Harrison to solve it by inventing the chronometer H-4 in 1760, and later in 1884 for the International Meridian Conference to adopt by convention the Greenwich meridian as zero meridian.
The 18th and the 19th centuries were the times when geography became recognized as a discrete academic discipline, and became part of a typical university curriculum in Europe (especially Paris and Berlin). The development of many geographic societies also occurred during the 19th century, with the foundations of the Société de Géographie in 1821, the Royal Geographical Society in 1830,
Over the past two centuries, the advancements in technology with computers have led to the development of geomatics and new practices such as participant observation and geostatistics being incorporated into geography's portfolio of tools. In the West during the 20th century, the discipline of geography went through four major phases: environmental determinism, regional geography, the quantitative revolution, and critical geography. The strong interdisciplinary links between geography and the sciences of geology and botany, as well as economics, sociology and demographics have also grown greatly, especially as a result of earth system science that seeks to understand the world in a holistic view.
Discoveries
Notable geographers
-
Eratosthenes ( 276–c. 195/194 BC) – calculated the size of the Earth.
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Strabo (64/63 BC – c. AD 24) – wrote Geographica, one of the first books outlining the study of geography.
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Ptolemy (c. 100–c. 170) – compiled Greek and Roman knowledge into the book Geographia.
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Muhammad al-Idrisi (Arabic: أبو عبد الله محمد الإدريسي; Latin: Dreses) (1100–1165) – author of Nuzhatul Mushtaq.
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Gerardus Mercator (1512–1594) – cartography who produced the mercator projection
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Alexander von Humboldt (1769–1859) – published Cosmos and founder of the sub-field biogeography.
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Carl Ritter (1779–1859) – occupied the first chair of geography at Berlin University.
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Arnold Henry Guyot (1807–1884) – noted the structure of glaciers and advanced understanding in Glacial motion, especially in fast ice flow.
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Radhanath Sikdar (1813–1870) – calculated the height of Mount Everest.
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Paul Vidal de La Blache (1845–1918) – founder of the French school of geopolitics, wrote the principles of human geography.
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William Morris Davis (1850–1934) – father of American geography and developer of the cycle of erosion.
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John Francon Williams (1854–1911) - author of The Geography of the Oceans.
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Sir Halford Mackinder (1861–1947) – co-founder of the LSE, Geographical Association.
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Ellen Churchill Semple (1863–1932) – first female president of the Association of American Geographers.
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Ernest Burgess (1886–1966) – creator of the concentric zone model.
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Carl O. Sauer (1889–1975) – cultural geographer.
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Walter Christaller (1893–1969) – human geographer and inventor of Central place theory.
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Yi-Fu Tuan (born 1930) – Chinese-American scholar credited with starting Humanistic Geography as a discipline.
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Karl Butzer (1934–2016) – German-American geographer, cultural ecologist and environmental archaeologist.
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David Harvey (born 1935) – Marxist geographer and author of theories on spatial and urban geography, winner of the Vautrin Lud Prize.
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Edward Soja (1940–2015) – worked on regional development, planning and governance and coined the terms Synekism and Postmetropolis; winner of the Vautrin Lud Prize.
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Doreen Massey (1944–2016) – scholar in the space and places of globalization and its pluralities; winner of the Vautrin Lud Prize.
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Michael Frank Goodchild (born 1944) – GIS scholar and winner of the RGS founder's medal in 2003.
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Nigel Thrift (born 1949) – originator of non-representational theory.
Institutions and societies
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American Geographical Society (US)
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Anton Melik Geographical Institute (Slovenia)
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American Association of Geographers (AAG)
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Institute of Geographical Information Systems (Pakistan)
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Karachi Geographical Society (Pakistan)
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National Geographic Society (US)
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Royal Canadian Geographical Society (Canada)
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Royal Geographical Society (UK)
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Russian Geographical Society (Russia)
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Royal Danish Geographical Society (Denmark)
Publications
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Antipode
-
African Geographical Review
-
Annals of the American Association of Geographers
-
Geographical Review
-
The Geographical Journal
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The Professional Geographer
Notes
External links
