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An electric vehicle ( EV) is a motor vehicle whose propulsion is powered fully or mostly by electricity. EVs encompass a wide range of transportation modes, including road vehicle and , and Submersible, electric aircraft and electric spacecraft.
Early electric vehicles first came into existence in the late 19th century, when the Second Industrial Revolution brought forth electrification and mass utilization of DC motor and AC motor . Using electricity was among the preferred methods for motor vehicle propulsion as it provided a level of quietness, comfort and ease of operation that could not be achieved by the gasoline engine cars of the time, but range anxiety due to the limited energy storage offered by contemporary battery technologies hindered any mass adoption of private electric vehicles throughout the 20th century. Internal combustion engines (both gasoline and ) were the dominant propulsion mechanisms for cars and trucks for about 100 years, but electricity-powered locomotion remained commonplace in other vehicle types, such as overhead line-powered mass transit vehicles like electric trains, , and , as well as various small, low-speed, short-range battery-powered personal vehicles such as .
Plug-in hybrid electric vehicles use electric motors as the primary propulsion method, rather than as a supplement, did not see any mass production until the late 2000s, and battery electric cars did not become practical options for the consumer market until the 2010s.
Progress in batteries, electric motors and power electronics has made electric cars more feasible than during the 20th century. As a means of reducing tailpipe emissions of carbon dioxide and other pollutants, and to reduce use of fossil fuels, government incentives are available in many areas to promote the adoption of electric cars.
The first mass-produced electric vehicles appeared in America in the early 1900s. In 1902, the Studebaker Automobile Company entered the automotive business with electric vehicles, though it also entered the gasoline vehicles market in 1904. However, with the advent of cheap assembly line cars by Ford Motor Company, the popularity of electric cars declined significantly. p231
Due to lack of electricity grids and the limitations of storage batteries at that time, electric cars did not gain much popularity; however, electric trains gained immense popularity due to their economies and achievable speeds. By the 20th century, electric rail transport became commonplace due to advances in the development of electric locomotives. Over time the general-purpose commercial use of electric cars was reduced to specialist roles as platform trucks, , ambulances,pp.8–9 Batten, Chris Ambulances Osprey Publishing, 4 March 2008 tow tractors, and urban delivery vehicles, such as the iconic British milk float. For most of the 20th century, the UK was the world's largest user of electric road vehicles.
Electrified trains were used for coal transport, as the motors did not use the valuable oxygen in the mines. Switzerland's lack of natural fossil resources forced the rapid electrification of their rail network. One of the earliest rechargeable batteriesthe nickel–iron batterywas favored by Thomas Edison for use in electric cars.
EVs were among the earliest automobiles, and before the preeminence of light, powerful internal combustion engines (ICEs), electric automobiles held many vehicle land speed and distance records in the early 1900s. They were produced by Baker Electric, Columbia Electric, Detroit Electric, and others, and at one point in history outsold gasoline-powered vehicles. In 1900, 28 percent of the cars on the road in the US were electric. EVs were so popular that even President Woodrow Wilson and his secret service agents toured Washington, D.C., in their Milburn Electrics, which covered 60–70 miles (100–110 km) per charge.AAA World Magazine. Jan–Feb 2011, p. 53
Most producers of passenger cars opted for gasoline cars in the first decade of the 20th century, but electric trucks were an established niche well into the 1920s. Several developments contributed to a decline in the popularity of electric cars.See Loeb, A.P., "Steam versus Electric versus Internal Combustion: Choosing the Vehicle Technology at the Start of the Automotive Age," Transportation Research Record, Journal of the Transportation Research Board of the National Academies, No. 1885, at 1. Auto trail required a greater range than that offered by electric cars, and the discovery of large reserves of petroleum in Texas, Oklahoma, and California led to the wide availability of affordable gasoline/petrol, making internal combustion powered cars cheaper to operate over long distances. Electric vehicles were seldom marketed as women's luxury car, which may have been a stigma among male consumers. Also, internal combustion-powered cars became ever-easier to operate thanks to the invention of the electric starter by Charles Kettering in 1912, which eliminated the need of a hand crank for starting a gasoline engine, and the noise emitted by ICE cars became more bearable thanks to the use of the muffler, which Hiram Percy Maxim had invented in 1897. As roads were improved outside urban areas, the electric vehicle range could not compete with the ICE. Finally, Assembly line of gasoline-powered vehicles by Henry Ford in 1913 reduced significantly the cost of gasoline cars as compared to electric cars.
In the 1930s, National City Lines, which was a partnership of General Motors, Firestone, and Standard Oil of California purchased many electric tram networks across the country to dismantle them and replace them with GM buses. The partnership was convicted of conspiring to monopolize the sale of equipment and supplies to their subsidiary companies. Still, it was acquitted of conspiring to monopolize the provision of transportation services.
The Copenhagen Summit, conducted amid a severe observable climate change brought on by human-made greenhouse gas emissions, was held in 2009. During the summit, more than 70 countries developed plans to reach net zero eventually. For many countries, adopting more EVs will help reduce the use of gasoline. In recent years, the market for electric off-road motorcycles, including dirt bikes, has seen significant growth. This trend is driven by advancements in battery technology and increasing demand for recreational electric vehicles.
Chrysler, Ford, GM, Honda, and Toyota also produced limited numbers of EVs for California drivers during this period. In 2003, upon the expiration of GM's EV1 leases, GM discontinued them. The discontinuation has variously been attributed to:
A movie made on the subject in 2005–2006 was titled Who Killed the Electric Car? and released theatrically by Sony Pictures Classics in 2006. The film explores the roles of automobile manufacturers, oil industry, the U.S. government, electric battery, hydrogen vehicles, and the general public, and each of their roles in limiting the deployment and adoption of this technology.
Ford released a number of their Ford Ecostar delivery vans into the market. Honda, Nissan and Toyota also repossessed and crushed most of their EVs, which, like the GM EV1s, had been available only by closed-end lease. After public protests, Toyota sold 200 of its RAV4 EVs; they later sold at over their original forty-thousand-dollar price. Later, BMW of Canada sold off a number of Mini EVs when their Canadian testing ended.
The production of the Citroën Berlingo Electrique stopped in September 2005. Zenn started production in 2006 but ended by 2009.
The carbon footprint and other emissions of electric vehicles vary depending on the fuel and technology used for electricity generation. The electricity may be stored in the vehicle using a battery, flywheel, or . Vehicles using internal combustion engines usually only derive their energy from a single or a few sources, usually non-renewable fossil fuels. A key advantage of electric vehicles is regenerative braking, which recovers kinetic energy, typically lost during friction braking as heat, as electricity restored to the on-board battery.
It is also possible to have hybrid EVs that derive electricity from multiple sources, such as:
For especially large EVs, such as , the chemical energy of the diesel–electric can be replaced by a nuclear reactor. The nuclear reactor usually provides heat, which drives a steam turbine, which drives a generator, which is then fed to the propulsion. See Nuclear marine propulsion.
A few experimental vehicles, such as some cars and a handful of aircraft use for electricity.
Batteries, electric double-layer capacitors and flywheel energy storage are forms of rechargeable on-board electricity storage systems. By avoiding an intermediate mechanical step, the energy conversion efficiency can be improved compared to hybrids by avoiding unnecessary energy conversions. Furthermore, electro-chemical batteries conversions are reversible, allowing electrical energy to be stored in chemical form.
Increasing the battery's lifespan decreases effective costs and environmental impact. One technique is to operate a subset of the battery cells at a time and switching these subsets.
In the past, nickel–metal hydride batteries were used in some electric cars, such as those made by General Motors. These battery types are considered outdated due to their tendencies to self-discharge in the heat. Furthermore, a patent for this type of battery was held by Chevron, which created a problem for their widespread development. These factors, coupled with their high cost, has led to lithium-ion batteries leading as the predominant battery for EVs.
The prices of lithium-ion batteries have declined dramatically over the past decade, contributing to a reduction in price for electric vehicles, but an increase in the price of critical minerals such as lithium from 2021 to the end of 2022 has put pressure on historical battery price decreases.
Efficiency of charging varies considerably depending on the type of charger, and energy is lost during the process of converting the electrical energy to mechanical energy.
Usually, direct current (DC) electricity is fed into a DC/AC inverter where it is converted to alternating current (AC) electricity and this AC electricity is connected to a 3-phase AC motor.
For electric trains, , and some electric cars, DC motors are often used. In some cases, are used, and then AC or DC may be employed. In recent production vehicles, various motor types have been implemented; for instance, within Tesla Motor vehicles and permanent magnet machines in the Nissan Leaf and Chevrolet Bolt.
In the systems above, motion is provided by a Rotary motor electric motor. However, it is possible to "unroll" the motor to drive directly against a special matched track. These are used in which float above the rails supported by magnetic levitation. This allows for almost no rolling resistance of the vehicle and no mechanical wear and tear of the train or track. In addition to the high-performance control systems needed, Railroad switch and curving of the tracks becomes difficult with linear motors, which to date has restricted their operations to high-speed point to point services.
Since electric trains do not need to carry a heavy internal combustion engine or large batteries, they can have very good power-to-weight ratios. This allows high speed trains such as France's double-deck to operate at speeds of 320 km/h (200 mph) or higher, and electric locomotives to have a much higher power output than diesel locomotives. In addition, they have higher short-term overcurrent for fast acceleration, and using regenerative brakes can put braking power back into the electrical grid rather than wasting it.
Maglev trains are also nearly always EVs.
There are also battery electric passenger trains operating on non-electrified rail lines.
Fossil fuel vehicle efficiency and pollution standards take years to filter through a nation's fleet of vehicles. New efficiency and pollution standards rely on the purchase of new vehicles, often as the current vehicles already on the road reach their end-of-life. Only a few nations set a retirement age for old vehicles, such as Japan or Singapore, forcing periodic upgrading of all vehicles already on the road.
Traction batteries, specifically designed with a high ampere-hour capacity, are used in forklifts, electric golf carts, riding floor scrubbers, electric motorcycles, electric cars, trucks, vans, and other electric vehicles. (1985). 9789401087865, Springer Netherlands. ISBN 9789401087865
Batteries with greater energy density such as metal–air fuel cells cannot always be recharged in a purely electric way, so some form of mechanical recharge may be used instead. A zinc–air battery, technically a fuel cell, is difficult to recharge electrically so may be "refueled" by periodically replacing the anode or electrolyte instead.
South Korea was the first to implement an induction-based public electric road with a commercial bus line in 2013 after testing an experimental shuttle service in 2009, but it was shut down due to aging infrastructure amidst controversy over the continued public funding of the technology.
United Kingdom municipal projects in 2015 and 2021 found wireless electric roads financially unfeasible.
Sweden has been performing assessments of various electric road technologies since 2013 under the Swedish Transport Administration electric road program. After receiving electric road construction offers in excess of the project's budget in 2023, Sweden pursued cost-reduction measures for either wireless or rail electric roads. The project's final report was published in 2024, which recommended against funding a national electric road network in Sweden as it would not be cost-effective, unless the technology was adopted by its trading partners such as by France and Germany.
Germany found in 2023 that the wireless electric road system (wERS) by Electreon collects 64.3% of the transmitted energy, poses many difficulties during installation, and blocks access to other infrastructure in the road. (2025). 9798350349139 EAN 9798350349139 Germany trialed overhead lines in three projects and reported they are too expensive, difficult to maintain, and pose a safety risk.
France found similar drawbacks for overhead lines as Germany did. France began several electric road pilot projects in 2023 for inductive and rail systems. Ground-level power supply systems are considered the most likely candidates.
Recent breakthroughs include dual storage mechanism nanoscale solid-state lithium-ion supercapacitors utilizing atomic layer deposition-synthesized lithium phosphorus oxynitride (LiPON) as solid-state electrolyte, demonstrating capacitance densities of 500 nF·mm⁻² with excellent cycling stability over ten thousand cycles. High-performance solid-state supercapacitors have been developed using silicon electrodes with graphene interconnected networks, showing remarkable performance characteristics comparable to high-power carbon-based supercapacitors.
Advanced hybrid designs include all-solid-state planar micro-supercapacitors based on 2D vanadium nitride nanosheets and cobalt hydroxide nanoflowers, achieving energy densities of 12.4 mWh cm⁻³ and power densities of 1,750 mW cm⁻³. Flexible solid-state supercapacitors operating across wide temperature ranges from -70°C to 220°C have been demonstrated using polycation-polybenzimidazole blend electrolytes doped with phosphoric acid.
Solid-state batteries represent one of the most promising next-generation battery technologies, offering potential advantages over conventional lithium-ion batteries including higher energy density, faster charging, improved safety, and longer lifespan. According to a comprehensive review in Chemical Engineering Journal, all-solid-state lithium batteries utilizing solid electrolytes are regarded as the next generation of energy storage devices, with recent breakthroughs significantly accelerating their path toward commercial viability.
The Fraunhofer ISI Solid-State Battery Roadmap 2035+, developed with contributions from more than 100 European experts, provides a comprehensive assessment of solid-state battery development potential over the next decade, benchmarking against established lithium-ion batteries. According to market analysis published in Scientific Talks, solid-state batteries are projected to reach mass production with costs of 140–175 USD per kWh by 2028–2030, depending on technological and manufacturing challenges.
Recent commercial developments include Mercedes-Benz and Factorial Energy conducting road tests of semi-solid-state batteries in the EQS sedan, promising a 25% increase in range with energy densities of 391 watt-hours per kilogram. This represents the world's first integration of lithium-metal solid-state batteries into a production vehicle. However, according to IEEE Spectrum analysis, solid-state batteries face significant "production hell" challenges, with experts noting pointed skepticism toward current technical announcements and the engineering obstacles that lie ahead.
Toyota continues to lead development efforts, targeting solid-state battery production by 2027–2028 with goals of 1,000 km range and 10-minute fast charging capabilities. The company claims recent technological advancements have overcome previous battery life trade-offs and switched focus to mass production readiness. Research published in ACS Energy Letters emphasizes that while all-solid-state batteries show promise for electric vehicles, significant challenges remain in Li-metal implementation, interfacial stability, and large-scale manufacturing.
Sodium-ion batteries continue to show promise with potential energy densities of 400 Wh/kg and minimal expansion/contraction during charge cycles, while relying on more abundant and cost-effective materials than lithium-ion technology. Recent research published in Energy & Fuels highlights sodium-ion and all-solid-state sodium batteries as promising choices for future energy storage systems due to abundant sodium resources and lower costs compared to lithium-based systems.
Recent technological developments address thermal runaway concerns more proactively. Advanced fire protection materials for EV batteries have become a critical research area, with developments in ceramics, mica, aerogels, coatings, and phase change materials designed to prevent or delay thermal runaway propagation.
Current regulations vary by region, with China being an early adopter of thermal runaway-specific requirements mandating prevention of fire or smoke exiting battery packs for five minutes after an event occurs. However, industry experts suggest longer escape times may be necessary for future regulations, with original equipment manufacturers targeting extended protection periods to pre-empt future regulatory requirements.
The carbon emissions from producing and operating an EV are, in the majority of cases less, than those of producing and operating a conventional vehicle. When pursuing a cost-responsive electric charging strategy (instead of an emission-responsive charging strategy), considerably higher emissions might arise as embedded carbon emissions from electricity are dynamic.EVs in urban areas almost always pollute less than internal combustion vehicles.
One limitation of the environmental potential of EVs is that simply switching the existing privately owned car fleet from ICEs to EVs will not free up road space for Active mobility or public transport. Electric micromobility vehicles, such as e-bikes, may contribute to the decarbonisation of transport systems, especially outside of urban areas which are already well-served by public transport.
Internal combustion engine vehicles use far more raw materials over their lifetime than EVs.
Business processes of raw material extraction in practice raise issues of transparency and accountability of the management of extractive resources. In the complex supply chain of lithium technology, there are diverse stakeholders representing corporate interests, public interest groups and political elites that are concerned with outcomes from the technology production and use. One possibility to achieve balanced extractive processes would be the establishment of commonly agreed-upon standards on the governance of technology worldwide.
The compliance of these standards can be assessed by the Assessment of Sustainability in Supply Chains Frameworks (ASSC). Hereby, the qualitative assessment consists of examining governance and social and environmental commitment. Indicators for the quantitative assessment are management systems and standards, compliance and social and environmental indicators.
One source estimates that over a fifth of the lithium and about 65% of the cobalt needed for electric cars will be from recycled sources by 2035. On the other hand, when counting the large quantities of fossil fuel non-electric cars consume over their lifetime, electric cars can be considered to dramatically reduce raw-material needs. "Electric car batteries need far less raw materials than fossil-fuel cars – study ". transportenvironment.org. Retrieved 1 November 2021. In 2022, the manufacturing of an EV emitted on average around 50% more CO2 than an equivalent internal combustion engine vehicle, but this difference is more than offset by the much higher emissions from the oil used in driving an internal combustion engine Vehicle over its lifetime compared to those from generating the electricity used for driving the EV.
In 2023, Greenpeace issued a video criticizing the view that EVs are "silver bullet for climate", arguing that the construction phase has a high environmental impact. For example, the rise in SUV sales by Hyundai almost eliminate the climate benefits of passing to EV in this company, because even electric SUVs have a high carbon footprint as they consume much raw materials and energy during construction. Greenpeace proposes a mobility as a service concept instead, based on biking, public transport and ride sharing.
Open-pit Nickel mine has led to environmental degradation and pollution in developing countries such as the Philippines and Indonesia. In 2024, nickel mining and processing was one of the main causes of deforestation in Indonesia. Open-pit cobalt mining has led to deforestation and habitat destruction in the Democratic Republic of Congo.
They can be finely controlled and provide high torque from stationary-to-moving, unlike internal combustion engines, and do not need multiple gears to match power curves. This removes the need for gearboxes and .
EVs provide quiet and smooth operation and consequently have less noise and vibration than internal combustion engines. While this is a desirable attribute, it has also evoked concern that the absence of the usual sounds of an approaching vehicle poses a danger to blind, elderly and very young pedestrians. To mitigate this situation, many countries mandate warning sounds when EVs are moving slowly, up to a speed when normal motion and rotation (road, suspension, electric motor, etc.) noises become audible.
Electric motors do not require oxygen, unlike internal combustion engines; this is useful for and for space rovers.
Well-to-wheel efficiency of an EV has less to do with the vehicle itself and more to do with the method of electricity production. A particular EV would instantly become twice as efficient if electricity production were switched from fossil fuels to renewable energy, such as wind power, tidal power, solar power, and nuclear power. Thus, when "well-to-wheels" is cited, the discussion is no longer about the vehicle, but rather about the entire energy supply infrastructurein the case of fossil fuels this should also include energy spent on exploration, mining, refining, and distribution.
The lifecycle analysis of EVs shows that even when powered by the most carbon-intensive electricity in Europe, they emit less greenhouse gases than a conventional diesel vehicle.
European carmakers face significant pressure from more affordable Chinese models and price cuts by US-based Tesla Motor. From 2021 to 2022, the European market share of Chinese EV manufacturers doubled to almost 9%, prompting the Carlos Tavares of Stellantis to describe it as an "invasion".
In 2022, the sales-weighted average range of small BEVs sold in the United States was nearly 350 km, while in France, Germany and the United Kingdom it was just under 300 km, compared to under 220 km in China.
Research shows people prefer trams to buses, because they are quieter and more comfortable and perceived as having higher status. Therefore, it may be possible to cut liquid fossil fuel consumption in cities through the use of electric trams. Trams may be the most energy-efficient form of public transportation, with rubber-wheeled vehicles using two-thirds more energy than the equivalent tram, and run on electricity rather than fossil fuels.
In terms of net present value, they are also the cheapestBlackpool trams are still running after 100 years, but combustion buses only last about 15 years.
Many governments offer incentives to promote the use of electric vehicles, with the goals of reducing air pollution and oil consumption. Some incentives intend to increase purchases of electric vehicles by offsetting the purchase price with a grant. Other incentives include lower tax rates or exemption from certain taxes, and investment in charging infrastructure.
In the United States, federal tax credits are available for electric vehicle buyers to try and help lower the initial purchase cost. European countries like Norway and Germany offer tax exemptions and reduced registration fees to encourage EV adoption. Partnerships between EV manufacturers and utility companies have also provided incentives and sales on EV purchases to promote cleaner energy usage and transportation.
Companies selling EVs have partnered with local electric utility to provide large incentives on some electric vehicles.
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In a 2023 survey concentrated specifically on electric car ownership in the US, 50% of respondents planning to purchase a future car considered themselves unlikely to seriously consider buying an EV. The survey also found that support for banning the production of non-electric vehicles in the US by 2035 has declined from 47% to 40%.
Tension between electric vehicles owners and traditional gasoline vehicle owners have also influenced public perception. Surveys were taken by the market research firm Ipsos in which they found that belief in EV's environmental benefits among Americans has declined from 63% to 58% over two years. Skepticism has risen mainly among non-EV considerers, who are becoming more united in the belief that EVs are not better for the environment. Cultural divides have contributed to the hostility, with EVs often being associated with coastal, urban elites. Misinformation about battery production, tire emissions, and electricity sources has further created negative attitudes among gasoline car supporters.
Public perception of electric vehicles varies across different countries and regions even though there is an overall increase in EV interest worldwide. In Europe, environmental concerns are forcing EV adoption, while in the U.S., cost and range anxiety are major barriers and challenges to the purchasing of EVs. In China, government incentives and infrastructure growth have contributed to higher consumer confidence in EVs. The growing awareness of environmental benefits and government support are influencing public attitudes globally. This is gradually increasing EV adoption rate. Norway is leading the way in EV adoption and consumers are taking advantage of the tax lift from all electric vehicle purchases. 9 out of every 10 cars being sold are electric due to this generous government incentive and Norway's wide spread charging infrastructure.
The full environmental impact of electric vehicles includes the life cycle impacts of carbon and sulfur emissions, as well as toxic metals entering the environment. Although EVs produce zero tailpipe emissions, they still have negative environmental impacts due to the manufacturing and recycling of batteries. This is particularly relevant in places that rely on coal-powered electricity grids.
Rare-earth metals (neodymium, dysprosium) and other mined metals (copper, nickel, iron) are used by EV motors, while lithium, cobalt, manganese are used by the batteries. The extraction and processing of these metals contributes to habitat destruction and environmental degradation proving the need for more sustainable sourcing. In 2023 the US State Department said that the supply of lithium would need to increase 42-fold by 2050 globally to support a transition to clean energy. Most of the lithium-ion battery production occurs in China, where the bulk of energy used is supplied by coal-burning power plants. A study of hundreds of cars on sale in 2021 concluded that the life cycle GHG emissions of full electric cars are slightly less than hybrids and that both are less than gasoline and diesel fuelled cars.
An alternative method of sourcing essential battery materials being deliberated by the International Seabed Authority is deep sea mining, however carmakers are not using this as of 2023.
The U.S. Department of Energy has launched its first battery recycling R&D center called ReCell. The center is located at Argonne National Laboratories and collaborates with national labs, universities, and partners in similar industries to improve recycling and manufacturing methods. The ReCell center's goal is to minimize waste and energy. Many companies and researchers are also working on newer battery technologies, including solid state batteriesPatel, Prachi. "Ion Storage Systems Says Its Ceramic Electrolyte Could Be a Gamechanger for Solid-State Batteries", IEEE.org, February 21, 2020 and alternate technologies.Lambert, Fred. "Tesla researchers show path to next-gen battery cell with breakthrough energy density" , Electrek, August 12, 2020
Current electricity infrastructure may need to cope with increasing shares of variable-output power sources such as wind and Solar PV. This variability could be addressed by adjusting the speed at which EV batteries are charged, or possibly even discharged.
Some concepts see battery exchanges and battery charging stations, much like gas/petrol stations today. These will require enormous storage and charging potentials, which could be manipulated to vary the rate of charging, and to output power during shortage periods, much as diesel generators are used for short periods to stabilize some national grids. National Grid's use of Emergency. Diesel Standby Generator's in dealing with grid intermittency and variability. Potential Contribution in assisting renewables , David Andrews, Senior Technical Consultant, Biwater Energy, A talk originally given by as the Energy Manager at Wessex Water at an Open University Conference on Intermittency, 24 January 2006
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