Cabbage, comprising several of Brassica oleracea, is a leafy green, red (purple), or white (pale green) biennial plant grown as an Annual plant vegetable crop for its dense-leaved heads. It is descended from the wild cabbage ( B. oleracea var. oleracea), and belongs to the "cole crops" or brassicas, meaning it is closely related to broccoli and cauliflower (var. botrytis); Brussels sprouts (var. gemmifera); and Savoy cabbage (var. sabauda).
A cabbage generally weighs between . Smooth-leafed, firm-headed green cabbages are the most common, with smooth-leafed purple cabbages and crinkle-leafed savoy cabbages of both colours being rarer. Under conditions of long sunny days, such as those found at high northern latitudes in summer, cabbages can grow quite large. , the heaviest cabbage was . Cabbage heads are generally picked during the first year of the plant's life cycle, but plants intended for seed are allowed to grow a second year and must be kept separate from other cole crops to prevent cross-pollination. Cabbage is prone to several nutrient deficiencies, as well as to multiple pests, and bacterial and fungal diseases.
Cabbage was most likely domestication somewhere in Europe in ancient history before 1000 BC. Cabbage use in cuisine has been documented since Antiquity.A brief historical sketch is in Toussaint-Samat, pp. 622ff. It was described as a table luxury in the Roman Empire.The Natural History of Pompeii. Cambridge University Press. 2002. p. 94. ISBN 978-0-521-80054-9 By the Middle Ages, cabbage had become a prominent part of European cuisine, as indicated by manuscript illuminations.Ingram, Christine (2000). The Cook's Guide to Vegetables. Hermes House. pp. 64–66. ISBN 978-1-84038-842-8. New variates were introduced from the Renaissance on, mostly by Germanic peoples. Savoy cabbage was developed in the 16th century. By the 17th and 18th centuries, cabbage was popularised as staple food in central, northern, and Eastern Europe.Tannahill, pp. 289–291 It was also employed by European sailors to prevent scurvy during long ship voyages at sea. Starting in the early modern era, cabbage was exported to the Americas, Asia, and around the world.
They can be prepared many different ways for eating; they can be pickling, fermented (for dishes such as sauerkraut, kimchi), steaming, stewing, roasting, sautéed, braising, or eaten Raw food. Raw cabbage is a rich source of vitamin K, vitamin C, and dietary fiber. China is the largest producer of cabbages, providing 48% of the world total.
The inflorescence is an unbranched and indeterminate terminal raceme measuring tall, with flowers that are yellow or white. Each flower has four set in a perpendicular pattern, as well as four , six , and a superior ovary that is two-celled and contains a single stigma and style. Two of the six stamens have shorter filaments. The fruit is a silique that opens at maturity through dehiscence to reveal brown or black seeds that are small and round in shape. Self-pollination is impossible, and plants are cross-pollinated by insects. The initial leaves form a rosette shape comprising 7 to 15 leaves, each measuring by ; after this, leaves with shorter petioles develop and heads form through the leaves cupping inward.
Many shapes, colors and leaf textures are found in various cultivated varieties of cabbage. Leaf types are generally divided between crinkled-leaf, loose-head savoys and smooth-leaf firm-head cabbages, while the color spectrum includes white and a range of greens and purples. Oblate, round and pointed shapes are found.Katz and Weaver, p. 280
Cabbage has been selectively bred for head weight and morphological characteristics, frost hardiness, fast growth and storage ability. The appearance of the cabbage head has been given importance in selective breeding, with varieties being chosen for shape, color, firmness and other physical characteristics.Ordas and Cartea, p. 128 Plant breeding objectives are now focused on increasing resistance to various insects and diseases and improving the nutritional content of cabbage.Ordas and Cartea, p. 135 Scientific research into the genetic modification of B. oleracea crops, including cabbage, has included European Union and United States explorations of greater insect and herbicide resistance.
There are several Guinness Book of World Records entries related to cabbage. These include the heaviest cabbage, at , heaviest red cabbage, at , longest cabbage roll, at , and the largest cabbage dish, at .
"Cabbage" was originally used to refer to multiple forms of B. oleracea, including those with loose or non-existent heads. A related species, Brassica rapa, is commonly named Chinese, napa or celery cabbage, and has many of the same uses. It is also a part of common names for several unrelated species. These include cabbage bark or cabbage tree (a member of the genus Andira) and cabbage palms, which include several genera of palm tree such as Mauritia, Roystonea oleracea, Acrocomia and Euterpe oenocarpus.
Many European and Asiatic names for cabbage are derived from the Celto-Slavic root cap or kap, meaning "head". The late Middle English word cabbage derives from the word caboche ("head"), from the Picard language of Old French. This in turn is a variant of the Old French caboce.
Cabbage was probably domesticated later in history than crops such as and wheat. Because of the wide range of crops developed from the wild B. oleracea, multiple broadly contemporaneous domestications of cabbage may have occurred throughout Europe. Nonheading cabbages and kale were probably the first to be domesticated, before 1000 BC,Katz and Weaver, p. 284 perhaps by the Celts of central and western Europe, although recent linguistic and genetic evidence enforces a Mediterranean origin of cultivated brassicas.
While unidentified brassicas were part of the highly conservative unchanging garden repertory,"Cabbage plants" are mentioned in Oppenheim, A. Leo (1977) Ancient Mesopotamia: Portrait of a Dead Civilization. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. p. 313. it is believed that the ancient Egyptians did not cultivate cabbage,
Chrysippus of Cnidos wrote a treatise on cabbage, which Pliny knew,Pliny's Natural History, 20. 78–83. but it has not survived. The Greeks were convinced that cabbages and were inimical, and that cabbage planted too near the vine would impart its unwelcome odor to the grapes; this Mediterranean sense of antipathy survives today.Toussaint-Samat, p. 622.
Brassica was considered by some Romans a table luxury,
According to Pliny, the Pompeii cabbage, which could not stand cold, is "taller, and has a thick stock near the root, but grows thicker between the leaves, these being scantier and narrower, but their tenderness is a valuable quality". The Pompeii cabbage was also mentioned by Columella in De Re Rustica. Apicius gives several recipes for cauliculi, tender cabbage shoots. The Greeks and Romans claimed medicinal usages for their cabbage varieties that included relief from gout, headaches and the symptoms of poisonous mushroom ingestion.
The antipathy towards the vine made it seem that eating cabbage would enable one to avoid drunkenness. Cabbage continued to figure in the materia medica of antiquity as well as at table: in the first century AD Dioscorides mentions two kinds of coleworts with medical uses, the cultivated and the wild, and his opinions continued to be paraphrased in herbals right through the 17th century.
At the end of Antiquity cabbage is mentioned in De observatione ciborum ("On the Observance of Foods") by Anthimus, a Greek doctor at the court of Theodoric the Great. Cabbage appears among vegetables directed to be cultivated in the Capitulare de villis, composed in 771–800 AD, that guided the governance of the royal estates of Charlemagne.
In Britain, the Anglo-Saxons cultivated cawel.Bosworth, Joseph. ed. An Anglo-Saxon Dictionary, s.v. "cawel" gives parallels: Scottish kail, kale; Frisian koal, koel; Dutch kool (fem.); German kohl (masc.), etc. but also Welsh cawl; Cornish caul (masc.); etc. Compare Latin caulis. When round-headed cabbages appeared in 14th-century England they were called cabaches and caboches, words drawn from Old French and applied at first to refer to the ball of unopened leaves, OED: "cabbage". the contemporaneous recipe that commences "Take cabbages and quarter them, and seethe them in good broth",Forgeng, Jeffrey L. and McLean, Will (2009) Daily Life in Chaucer's England. ABC-CLIO. p. 298. also suggests the tightly headed cabbage.
Manuscript illuminations show the prominence of cabbage in the cuisine of the High Middle Ages, and cabbage seeds feature among the seed list of purchases for the use of King John II of France when captive in England in 1360,Parrain, Charles (1966) "The evolution of agricultural technique" in M. M. Postan, ed. The Cambridge Economic History of Europe: I. The Agrarian Life of the Middle Ages. Cambridge University Press. p. 166. , but cabbages were also a familiar staple of the poor: in the lean year of 1420 the "Bourgeois of Paris" noted that "poor people ate no bread, nothing but cabbages and turnips and such dishes, without any bread or salt".
In Istanbul, Sultan Selim III penned a tongue-in-cheek ode to cabbage: without cabbage, the halva feast was not complete.A translation is in Isin, Mary (2013) Sherbet and Spice: The Complete Story of Turkish Sweets and Desserts. I.B. Tauris. p. 146. In India, cabbage was one of several vegetable crops introduced by colonizing traders from Portugal, who established trade routes from the 14th to 17th centuries. Carl Peter Thunberg reported that cabbage was not yet known in Japan in 1775.
Many cabbage varieties—including some still commonly grown—were introduced in Germany, France, and the Low Countries. During the 16th century, German gardeners developed the savoy cabbage. During the 17th and 18th centuries, cabbage was a food staple food in such countries as Germany, England, Ireland and Russia, and pickled cabbage was frequently eaten. Sauerkraut was used by Dutch, Scandinavian and German sailors to prevent scurvy during long ship voyages.
Jacques Cartier first brought cabbage to the Americas in 1541–42, and it was probably planted by the early English colonists, despite the lack of written evidence of its existence there until the mid-17th century. By the 18th century, it was commonly planted by both colonists and native American Indians. Cabbage seeds traveled to Australia in 1788 with the First Fleet, and were planted the same year on Norfolk Island. It became a favorite vegetable of Australians by the 1830s and was frequently seen at the Sydney Markets. In Brno, Czech Republic there is an open-air market named after cabbage which has been in operation since 1325, the Zelný trh.
Temperatures between prompt the best growth, and extended periods of higher or lower temperatures may result in premature bolting (flowering).Bradley et al., pp. 56–57 Flowering induced by periods of low temperatures (a process called vernalization) only occurs if the plant is past the juvenile period. The transition from a juvenile to adult state happens when the stem diameter is about . Vernalization allows the plant to grow to an adequate size before flowering. In certain climates, cabbage can be planted at the beginning of the cold period and survive until a later warm period without being induced to flower, a practice that was common in the eastern US.Wien and Wurr, pp. 512–515
Plants are generally started in protected locations early in the growing season before being transplanting outside, although some are seeded directly into the ground from which they will be harvested. Seedlings typically emerge in about 4–6 days from seeds planted deep at a soil temperature between .Maynard and Hochmuth, p. 111 Growers normally place plants apart. Closer spacing reduces the resources available to each plant (especially the amount of light) and increases the time taken to reach maturity.Wien and Wurr, p. 534
Some varieties of cabbage have been developed for ornamental use; these are generally called "flowering cabbage". They do not produce heads and feature purple or green outer leaves surrounding an inner grouping of smaller leaves in white, red, or pink. Early varieties of cabbage take about 70 days from planting to reach maturity, while late varieties take about 120 days.Maynard and Hochmuth, p. 415
Cabbages are mature when they are firm and solid to the touch. They are harvested by cutting the stalk just below the bottom leaves with a blade. The outer leaves are trimmed, and any diseased, damaged, or necrotic leaves are removed. Delays in harvest can result in the head splitting as a result of expansion of the inner leaves and continued stem growth.Wien and Wurr, p. 524
When being grown for seed, cabbages must be isolated from other B. oleracea subspecies, including the wild varieties, by to prevent cross-pollination. Other Brassica species, such as Brassica rapa, Brassica juncea, Brassica nigra, Brassica napus and Raphanus sativus, do not readily cross-pollinate.Katz and Weaver, p. 282
Some sources only delineate three cultivars: savoy, red and white, with spring greens and green cabbage being subsumed under the last.Ordas and Cartea, p. 124
Fungal diseases include wirestem, which causes weak or dying transplants; Fusarium, which result in stunted and twisted plants with yellow leaves; and blackleg (see Leptosphaeria maculans), which leads to sunken areas on stems and gray-brown spotted leaves. The fungi Alternaria brassicae and A. brassicicola cause dark leaf spots in affected plants. They are both seedborne and airborne, and typically propagate from spores in infected plant debris left on the soil surface for up to twelve weeks after harvest. Rhizoctonia solani causes the post-emergence disease wirestem, resulting in killed seedlings ("damping-off"), root rot or stunted growth and smaller heads.
One of the most common bacterial diseases to affect cabbage is black rot, caused by Xanthomonas campestris, which causes chlorosis and necrosis lesions that start at the leaf margins, and wilting of plants. Clubroot, caused by the soilborne slime mold-like organism Plasmodiophora brassicae, results in swollen, club-like roots. Downy mildew, a parasitic disease caused by the oomycete Peronospora parasitica, produces pale leaves with white, brownish or olive mildew on the lower leaf surfaces; this is often confused with the fungal disease powdery mildew.
Pests include root-knot nematodes and Delia radicum, which produce stunted and wilted plants with yellow leaves; , which induce stunted plants with curled and yellow leaves; harlequin cabbage bugs, which cause white and yellow leaves; , which lead to leaves with white-bronze spots; striped flea beetles, which riddle leaves with small holes; and , which leave behind large, ragged holes in leaves.Bradley et al., pp. 57–59 The caterpillar stage of the "small cabbage white butterfly" ( Pieris rapae), commonly known in the United States as the "imported cabbage worm", is a major cabbage pest in most countries.
The large white butterfly ( Pieris brassicae) is prevalent in eastern European countries. The diamondback moth ( Plutella xylostella) and the cabbage moth ( Mamestra brassicae) thrive in the higher summer temperatures of continental Europe, where they cause considerable damage to cabbage crops. The mustard leaf beetle ( Phaedon cochleariae), is a common pest of cabbage plants. The mustard leaf beetle will often choose to feed on cabbage over their natural host plants as cabbage is more abundant in palatable compounds such as glucosinolates that encourage higher consumption. The cabbage looper ( Cabbage looper) is infamous in North America for its voracious appetite and for producing frass that contaminates plants.Turini TA, Daugovish O, Koike ST, Natwick ET, Ploeg A, Dara SK, Fennimore SA, Joseph S, LeStrange M, Smith R, Subbarao KV, Westerdahl BB. Revised continuously. UC IPM Pest Management Guidelines Cole Crops. UC ANR Publication 3442. Oakland, CA. In India, the diamondback moth has caused losses up to 90 percent in crops that were not treated with insecticide.Janick, p. 195 Destructive soil insects such as the cabbage root fly ( Delia radicum) has larvae can burrow into the part of plant consumed by humans.
Planting near other members of the cabbage family, or where these plants have been placed in previous years, can prompt the spread of pests and disease. Excessive water and excessive heat can also cause cultivation problems.
Factors that contribute to reduced head weight include: growth in the compacted soils that result from no-till farming practices, drought, waterlogging, insect and disease incidence, and shading and nutrient stress caused by weeds.
Excessive consumption of cabbage may lead to increased intestinal gas which causes bloating and flatulence due to the trisaccharide raffinose, which the human small intestine cannot digestion, but is digested by bacteria in the large intestine.
Cabbage has been linked to outbreaks of some food-borne illnesses, including Listeria monocytogenes and Clostridium botulinum. The latter toxin has been traced to pre-made, packaged coleslaw mixes, while the spores were found on whole cabbages that were otherwise acceptable in appearance. Shigella species are able to survive in shredded cabbage. Two outbreaks of Escherichia coli in the United States have been linked to cabbage consumption. Biological risk assessments have concluded that there is the potential for further outbreaks linked to uncooked cabbage, due to contamination at many stages of the growing, harvesting and packaging processes. Contaminants from water, humans, animals and soil have the potential to be transferred to cabbage, and from there to the end consumer.
Whilst not a toxic vegetable in its natural state, an increase in intestinal gas can lead to the death of many small animals like rabbits due to gastrointestinal stasis.
Cabbage and other cruciferous vegetables contain small amounts of thiocyanate, a compound associated with goiter formation when iodine intake is deficient.
Cabbage consumption varies widely around the world: Russia has the highest annual per capita consumption at , followed by Belgium at and the Netherlands at . Americans consume annually per capita.
Vacuum cooling rapidly refrigerates the vegetable, allowing for earlier shipping and a fresher product. Cabbage can be stored the longest at with a humidity of 90–100%; these conditions will result in up to six months of longevity. When stored under less ideal conditions, cabbage can still last up to four months.
In Poland, cabbage is one of the main food crops, and it features prominently in Polish cuisine. It is frequently eaten, either cooked or as sauerkraut, as a side dish or as an ingredient in such dishes as bigos (cabbage, sauerkraut, meat, and wild mushrooms, among other ingredients), gołąbki (stuffed cabbage), and pierogi (filled dumplings). Other eastern European countries, such as Hungary and Romania, also have traditional dishes that feature cabbage as a main ingredient.
Tofu and cabbage is a staple of Chinese cooking,Tannahill, p. 146 while the British dish bubble and squeak is made primarily with leftover potato and boiled cabbage and eaten with cold meat.Tannahill, p. 277 In India and Ethiopia, cabbage is often included in spicy salads and braises. In the United States, cabbage is used primarily for the production of coleslaw, followed by market use and sauerkraut production.
Although the relationship between a diet rich in cruciferous vegetables and the risk of cancer has been widely studied, there remains insufficient evidence that consuming cabbage compounds decreases cancer risk, as of 2024.
The supposed cooling properties of the leaves were used in Britain as a treatment for trench foot in World War I, and as compresses for and mastitis. Other medicinal uses recorded in European folk medicine include treatments for rheumatism, sore throat, Dysphonia, baby colic, and melancholy. Both mashed cabbage and cabbage juice have been used in to remove and treat , pneumonia, appendicitis, and ulcers.
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