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Cabbage, comprising several of Brassica oleracea, is a leafy green, red (purple), or white (pale green) grown as an vegetable crop for its dense-leaved heads. It is descended from the wild cabbage ( B. oleracea var. oleracea), and belongs to the "" or brassicas, meaning it is closely related to and (var. botrytis); (var. gemmifera); and (var. sabauda).

A cabbage generally weighs between . Smooth-leafed, firm-headed green cabbages are the most common, with smooth-leafed purple cabbages and crinkle-leafed savoy cabbages of both colours being rarer. Under conditions of long sunny days, such as those found at high northern latitudes in summer, cabbages can grow quite large. , the heaviest cabbage was . Cabbage heads are generally picked during the first year of the plant's life cycle, but plants intended for seed are allowed to grow a second year and must be kept separate from other to prevent cross-pollination. Cabbage is prone to several nutrient deficiencies, as well as to multiple pests, and bacterial and fungal diseases.

Cabbage was most likely somewhere in in before 1000 BC. Cabbage use in cuisine has been documented since Antiquity.A brief historical sketch is in Toussaint-Samat, pp. 622ff. It was described as a table luxury in the .The Natural History of Pompeii. Cambridge University Press. 2002. p. 94. ISBN 978-0-521-80054-9 By the , cabbage had become a prominent part of , as indicated by manuscript illuminations.Ingram, Christine (2000). The Cook's Guide to Vegetables. Hermes House. pp. 64–66. ISBN 978-1-84038-842-8. New variates were introduced from the on, mostly by . was developed in the 16th century. By the 17th and 18th centuries, cabbage was popularised as in central, northern, and Eastern Europe.Tannahill, pp. 289–291 It was also employed by European sailors to prevent during long ship voyages at sea. Starting in the early modern era, cabbage was exported to the , , and around the world.

They can be prepared many different ways for eating; they can be , (for dishes such as , ), , , , sautéed, , or eaten . Raw cabbage is a rich source of , , and . is the largest producer of cabbages, providing 48% of the world total.


Description
Cabbage have a thin and cordate (heart-shaped) . The first leaves produced are ovate (egg-shaped) with a lobed petiole. Plants are tall in their first year at the mature vegetative stage, and tall when flowering in the second year.Dixon, p. 19 Heads average between , with fast-growing, earlier-maturing varieties producing smaller heads. Most cabbages have thick, alternating leaves, with margins that range from wavy or lobed to highly dissected; some varieties have a on the leaves. Plants have root systems that are fibrous and shallow. About 90% of the root mass is in the upper of soil; some can penetrate up to deep.

The is an unbranched and indeterminate terminal measuring tall, with flowers that are yellow or white. Each flower has four set in a perpendicular pattern, as well as four , six , and a that is two-celled and contains a single stigma and style. Two of the six stamens have shorter filaments. The fruit is a that opens at maturity through dehiscence to reveal brown or black seeds that are small and round in shape. is impossible, and plants are by insects. The initial leaves form a rosette shape comprising 7 to 15 leaves, each measuring by ; after this, leaves with shorter petioles develop and heads form through the leaves cupping inward.

Many shapes, colors and leaf textures are found in various cultivated varieties of cabbage. Leaf types are generally divided between crinkled-leaf, loose-head savoys and smooth-leaf firm-head cabbages, while the color spectrum includes white and a range of greens and purples. Oblate, round and pointed shapes are found.Katz and Weaver, p. 280

Cabbage has been selectively bred for head weight and morphological characteristics, frost hardiness, fast growth and storage ability. The appearance of the cabbage head has been given importance in selective breeding, with varieties being chosen for shape, color, firmness and other physical characteristics.Ordas and Cartea, p. 128 objectives are now focused on increasing resistance to various insects and diseases and improving the nutritional content of cabbage.Ordas and Cartea, p. 135 Scientific research into the genetic modification of B. oleracea crops, including cabbage, has included European Union and United States explorations of greater insect and herbicide resistance.

There are several Guinness Book of World Records entries related to cabbage. These include the heaviest cabbage, at , heaviest red cabbage, at , longest , at , and the largest cabbage dish, at .


Taxonomy
Cabbage ( Brassica oleracea or B. oleracea var. capitata, var. tuba, var. sabauda or var. acephala) is a member of the genus and the mustard family . Several other cruciferous vegetables (sometimes known as cole crops) are of B. oleracea, including , , , and sprouting broccoli. All of these developed from the wild cabbage B. oleracea var. oleracea, also called or field cabbage. This original species over thousands of years into those seen today, as selection resulted in cultivars having different characteristics, such as large heads for cabbage, large leaves for and thick stems with flower buds for broccoli.

"Cabbage" was originally used to refer to multiple forms of B. oleracea, including those with loose or non-existent heads. A related species, , is commonly named Chinese, napa or celery cabbage, and has many of the same uses.

(2025). 9780688152604, HarperCollins. .
It is also a part of common names for several unrelated species. These include cabbage bark or cabbage tree (a member of the genus ) and cabbage palms, which include several genera of such as , Roystonea oleracea, and Euterpe oenocarpus.
(2025). 9780773534063, McGill-Queen's Press. .


Etymology
The original family name of brassicas was Cruciferae, which derived from the flower petal pattern thought by medieval Europeans to resemble a .Katz and Weaver, p. 279 The word brassica derives from bresic, a word for cabbage. The varietal capitata is derived from the word for 'having a head'.
(2025). 9780660198583, NRC Research Press. .

Many European and Asiatic names for cabbage are derived from the Celto-Slavic root cap or kap, meaning "head". The late Middle English word cabbage derives from the word caboche ("head"), from the of . This in turn is a variant of the Old French caboce.

(2025). 9780198631217, Oxford University Press. .


Cultivation

History
Although cabbage has an extensive history, it is difficult to trace its exact origins owing to the many varieties of leafy greens classified as "brassicas". A possible wild ancestor of cabbage, Brassica oleracea, originally found in Britain and continental Europe, is tolerant of salt but not encroachment by other plants and consequently inhabits rocky cliffs in cool damp coastal habitats,Dixon, p. 2 retaining water and nutrients in its slightly thickened, turgid leaves. However, genetic analysis is consistent with origin of this population, deriving from plants escaped from field and gardens. According to the triangle of U theory of the evolution and relationships between Brassica species, B. oleracea and other closely related kale vegetables (cabbages, kale, broccoli, Brussels sprouts, and cauliflower) represent one of three ancestral lines from which all other brassicas originated.

Cabbage was probably domesticated later in history than crops such as and . Because of the wide range of crops developed from the wild B. oleracea, multiple broadly contemporaneous domestications of cabbage may have occurred throughout Europe. Nonheading cabbages and kale were probably the first to be domesticated, before 1000 BC,Katz and Weaver, p. 284 perhaps by the of central and western Europe, although recent linguistic and genetic evidence enforces a Mediterranean origin of cultivated brassicas.

While unidentified brassicas were part of the highly conservative unchanging garden repertory,"Cabbage plants" are mentioned in Oppenheim, A. Leo (1977) Ancient Mesopotamia: Portrait of a Dead Civilization. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. p. 313. it is believed that the ancient Egyptians did not cultivate cabbage,

(2025). 9781598847758, ABC-CLIO.
which is not native to the Nile valley, though the word shaw't in of the time of has been interpreted as "cabbage".Janick, p. 51 The ancient Greeks had some varieties of cabbage, as mentioned by , although whether they were more closely related to today's cabbage or to one of the other Brassica crops is unknown. The headed cabbage variety was known to the Greeks as krambe and to the Romans as brassica or olus;
(2025). 9781135954222, Routledge.
the open, leafy variety (kale) was known in Greek as raphanos and in Latin as caulis. knew the as gramb, under the influence of Greek krambe, which had been a familiar plant to the Macedonian antecedents of the Ptolemies. By early Roman times, Egyptian artisans and children were eating cabbage and among a wide variety of other vegetables and pulses. Selected Papyri I, 186, noted in Alan K. Bowman, Egypt After the Pharaohs, p 151.

Chrysippus of Cnidos wrote a treatise on cabbage, which Pliny knew,Pliny's Natural History, 20. 78–83. but it has not survived. The Greeks were convinced that cabbages and were inimical, and that cabbage planted too near the vine would impart its unwelcome odor to the grapes; this Mediterranean sense of antipathy survives today.Toussaint-Samat, p. 622.

Brassica was considered by some Romans a table luxury,

(2025). 9780521800549, Cambridge University Press.
although considered it unfit for the senatorial table.Toussaint-Samat, p. 623. The more traditionalist Cato the Elder, espousing a simple Republican life, ate his cabbage cooked or raw and dressed with vinegar; he said it surpassed all other vegetables, and approvingly distinguished three varieties; he also gave directions for its medicinal use, which extended to the cabbage-eater's urine, in which infants might be rinsed.Cato, De agricultura, CLVI, CLVII; the passages are paraphrased by Pliny the Elder. Pliny the Elder listed seven varieties, including cabbage, cabbage and cabbage.

According to Pliny, the Pompeii cabbage, which could not stand cold, is "taller, and has a thick stock near the root, but grows thicker between the leaves, these being scantier and narrower, but their tenderness is a valuable quality". The Pompeii cabbage was also mentioned by in De Re Rustica. gives several recipes for cauliculi, tender cabbage shoots. The Greeks and Romans claimed medicinal usages for their cabbage varieties that included relief from , headaches and the symptoms of poisonous mushroom ingestion.

The antipathy towards the vine made it seem that eating cabbage would enable one to avoid drunkenness. Cabbage continued to figure in the of antiquity as well as at table: in the first century AD Dioscorides mentions two kinds of coleworts with medical uses, the cultivated and the wild,

(2025). 9780486204598, J.B. Lyon. .
and his opinions continued to be paraphrased in right through the 17th century.

At the end of Antiquity cabbage is mentioned in De observatione ciborum ("On the Observance of Foods") by Anthimus, a Greek doctor at the court of Theodoric the Great. Cabbage appears among vegetables directed to be cultivated in the Capitulare de villis, composed in 771–800 AD, that guided the governance of the royal estates of .

In Britain, the Anglo-Saxons cultivated cawel.Bosworth, Joseph. ed. An Anglo-Saxon Dictionary, s.v. "cawel" gives parallels: Scottish kail, kale; Frisian koal, koel; Dutch kool (fem.); German kohl (masc.), etc. but also Welsh cawl; Cornish caul (masc.); etc. Compare Latin caulis. When round-headed cabbages appeared in 14th-century England they were called cabaches and caboches, words drawn from and applied at first to refer to the ball of unopened leaves, : "cabbage". the contemporaneous recipe that commences "Take cabbages and quarter them, and seethe them in good broth",Forgeng, Jeffrey L. and McLean, Will (2009) Daily Life in Chaucer's England. ABC-CLIO. p. 298. also suggests the tightly headed cabbage.

Manuscript illuminations show the prominence of cabbage in the cuisine of the High Middle Ages,

(2025). 9781840388428, Hermes House.
and cabbage seeds feature among the seed list of purchases for the use of King John II of France when captive in England in 1360,Parrain, Charles (1966) "The evolution of agricultural technique" in M. M. Postan, ed. The Cambridge Economic History of Europe: I. The Agrarian Life of the Middle Ages. Cambridge University Press. p. 166. , but cabbages were also a familiar staple of the poor: in the lean year of 1420 the "Bourgeois of Paris" noted that "poor people ate no bread, nothing but cabbages and turnips and such dishes, without any bread or salt".

French naturalist made what is considered the first explicit mention of head cabbage in his 1536 botanical treatise De Natura Stirpium, referring to it as capucos coles ("head-coles").

(2025). 9781558321960, Harvard Common Press. .

In Istanbul, Sultan penned a tongue-in-cheek ode to cabbage: without cabbage, the halva feast was not complete.A translation is in Isin, Mary (2013) Sherbet and Spice: The Complete Story of Turkish Sweets and Desserts. I.B. Tauris. p. 146. In India, cabbage was one of several vegetable crops introduced by colonizing traders from Portugal, who established trade routes from the 14th to 17th centuries.

(2025). 9788180692420, Concept Publishing. .
Carl Peter Thunberg reported that cabbage was not yet known in Japan in 1775.

Many cabbage varieties—including some still commonly grown—were introduced in Germany, France, and the . During the 16th century, German gardeners developed the . During the 17th and 18th centuries, cabbage was a food in such countries as Germany, England, Ireland and Russia, and pickled cabbage was frequently eaten. was used by Dutch, Scandinavian and German sailors to prevent during long ship voyages.

first brought cabbage to the Americas in 1541–42, and it was probably planted by the early English colonists, despite the lack of written evidence of its existence there until the mid-17th century. By the 18th century, it was commonly planted by both colonists and native American Indians. Cabbage seeds traveled to Australia in 1788 with the , and were planted the same year on . It became a favorite vegetable of Australians by the 1830s and was frequently seen at the . In , Czech Republic there is an open-air market named after cabbage which has been in operation since 1325, the Zelný trh.


Modern cultivation
Cabbage is generally grown for its densely leaved heads, produced during the first year of its biennial cycle. Plants perform best when grown in well-drained soil in a location that receives full sun. Different varieties prefer different soil types, ranging from lighter sand to heavier clay, but all prefer fertile ground with a between 6.0 and 6.8. For optimal growth, there must be adequate levels of in the soil, especially during the early head formation stage, and sufficient and during the early stages of expansion of the outer leaves.Wien and Wurr, p. 533

Temperatures between prompt the best growth, and extended periods of higher or lower temperatures may result in premature bolting (flowering).Bradley et al., pp. 56–57 Flowering induced by periods of low temperatures (a process called ) only occurs if the plant is past the juvenile period. The transition from a juvenile to adult state happens when the stem diameter is about . Vernalization allows the plant to grow to an adequate size before flowering. In certain climates, cabbage can be planted at the beginning of the cold period and survive until a later warm period without being induced to flower, a practice that was common in the eastern US.Wien and Wurr, pp. 512–515

Plants are generally started in protected locations early in the growing season before being outside, although some are seeded directly into the ground from which they will be harvested. Seedlings typically emerge in about 4–6 days from seeds planted deep at a soil temperature between .Maynard and Hochmuth, p. 111 Growers normally place plants apart. Closer spacing reduces the resources available to each plant (especially the amount of light) and increases the time taken to reach maturity.Wien and Wurr, p. 534

Some varieties of cabbage have been developed for ornamental use; these are generally called "flowering cabbage". They do not produce heads and feature purple or green outer leaves surrounding an inner grouping of smaller leaves in white, red, or pink. Early varieties of cabbage take about 70 days from planting to reach maturity, while late varieties take about 120 days.Maynard and Hochmuth, p. 415

Cabbages are mature when they are firm and solid to the touch. They are harvested by cutting the stalk just below the bottom leaves with a blade. The outer leaves are trimmed, and any diseased, damaged, or necrotic leaves are removed.

(2025). 9781405106191, Blackwell Publishing.
Delays in harvest can result in the head splitting as a result of expansion of the inner leaves and continued stem growth.Wien and Wurr, p. 524

When being grown for seed, cabbages must be isolated from other B. oleracea subspecies, including the wild varieties, by to prevent cross-pollination. Other Brassica , such as , , , and , do not readily cross-pollinate.Katz and Weaver, p. 282


Cultivars
There are several of cabbage, each including many cultivars:
  •  – Characterized by crimped or curly leaves, mild flavor and tender texture
  • Spring greens (Brassica oleracea) – Loose-headed, commonly sliced and steamed
  • Green – Light to dark green, slightly pointed heads.
  •  – Smooth red leaves, often used for pickling or stewing
  • White, also called Dutch – Smooth, pale green leaves

Some sources only delineate three cultivars: savoy, red and white, with spring greens and green cabbage being subsumed under the last.Ordas and Cartea, p. 124


Cultivation problems
Due to its high level of nutrient requirements, cabbage is prone to nutrient deficiencies, including boron, calcium, phosphorus and potassium. There are several physiological disorders that can affect the postharvest appearance of cabbage. Internal tip burn occurs when the margins of inside leaves turn brown, but the outer leaves look normal. Necrotic spot is where there are oval sunken spots a few millimeters across that are often grouped around the midrib. In pepper spot, tiny black spots occur on the areas between the veins, which can increase during storage.

Fungal diseases include wirestem, which causes weak or dying transplants; , which result in stunted and twisted plants with yellow leaves; and blackleg (see Leptosphaeria maculans), which leads to sunken areas on stems and gray-brown spotted leaves. The fungi Alternaria brassicae and A. brassicicola cause dark leaf spots in affected plants. They are both seedborne and airborne, and typically propagate from spores in infected plant debris left on the soil surface for up to twelve weeks after harvest. Rhizoctonia solani causes the post-emergence disease wirestem, resulting in killed seedlings ("damping-off"), root rot or stunted growth and smaller heads.

(2025). 9781420053616, CRC Press.

One of the most common bacterial diseases to affect cabbage is , caused by Xanthomonas campestris, which causes and lesions that start at the leaf margins, and of plants. , caused by the soilborne -like organism Plasmodiophora brassicae, results in swollen, club-like roots. , a parasitic disease caused by the Peronospora parasitica, produces pale leaves with white, brownish or olive on the lower leaf surfaces; this is often confused with the fungal disease .

Pests include root-knot nematodes and , which produce stunted and wilted plants with yellow leaves; , which induce stunted plants with curled and yellow leaves; harlequin cabbage bugs, which cause white and yellow leaves; , which lead to leaves with white-bronze spots; striped flea beetles, which riddle leaves with small holes; and , which leave behind large, ragged holes in leaves.Bradley et al., pp. 57–59 The caterpillar stage of the "small cabbage white butterfly" ( ), commonly known in the United States as the "imported cabbage worm", is a major cabbage pest in most countries.

The large white butterfly ( ) is prevalent in eastern European countries. The diamondback moth ( Plutella xylostella) and the cabbage moth ( Mamestra brassicae) thrive in the higher summer temperatures of continental Europe, where they cause considerable damage to cabbage crops. The mustard leaf beetle ( Phaedon cochleariae), is a common pest of cabbage plants. The mustard leaf beetle will often choose to feed on cabbage over their natural host plants as cabbage is more abundant in palatable compounds such as glucosinolates that encourage higher consumption. The cabbage looper ( ) is infamous in North America for its voracious appetite and for producing frass that contaminates plants.Turini TA, Daugovish O, Koike ST, Natwick ET, Ploeg A, Dara SK, Fennimore SA, Joseph S, LeStrange M, Smith R, Subbarao KV, Westerdahl BB. Revised continuously. UC IPM Pest Management Guidelines Cole Crops. UC ANR Publication 3442. Oakland, CA. In India, the diamondback moth has caused losses up to 90 percent in crops that were not treated with insecticide.Janick, p. 195 Destructive soil insects such as the cabbage root fly ( ) has larvae can burrow into the part of plant consumed by humans.

(2025). 9781420053616, CRC Press.

Planting near other members of the cabbage family, or where these plants have been placed in previous years, can prompt the spread of pests and disease. Excessive water and excessive heat can also cause cultivation problems.

Factors that contribute to reduced head weight include: growth in the compacted soils that result from practices, drought, waterlogging, insect and disease incidence, and shading and nutrient stress caused by weeds.

+ Cabbage production
35.5
10.0
2.6
2.5
1.6
73.8


Production
In 2023, world production of cabbages was 74 million , led by China with 48% of the total (table). Other substantial producers were India, Russia, and South Korea.


Toxicity
When overcooked, toxic gas is produced.

Excessive consumption of cabbage may lead to increased which causes and due to the , which the human cannot , but is digested by bacteria in the .

Cabbage has been linked to outbreaks of some food-borne illnesses, including Listeria monocytogenes and Clostridium botulinum. The latter toxin has been traced to pre-made, packaged coleslaw mixes, while the spores were found on whole cabbages that were otherwise acceptable in appearance. species are able to survive in shredded cabbage. Two outbreaks of in the United States have been linked to cabbage consumption. Biological risk assessments have concluded that there is the potential for further outbreaks linked to uncooked cabbage, due to contamination at many stages of the growing, harvesting and packaging processes. Contaminants from water, humans, animals and soil have the potential to be transferred to cabbage, and from there to the end consumer.

Whilst not a toxic vegetable in its natural state, an increase in intestinal gas can lead to the death of many small animals like rabbits due to gastrointestinal stasis.

Cabbage and other cruciferous vegetables contain small amounts of , a compound associated with formation when iodine intake is deficient.


Uses

Culinary
The characteristic flavor of cabbage is caused by , a class of -containing . Although found throughout the plant, these compounds are concentrated in the highest quantities in the seeds; lesser quantities are found in young vegetative tissue, and they decrease as the tissue ages.Katz and Weaver, pp. 282–283 Cooked cabbage is often criticized for its pungent, unpleasant odor and taste. These develop when cabbage is overcooked and hydrogen sulfide gas is produced.

Cabbage consumption varies widely around the world: Russia has the highest annual per capita consumption at , followed by Belgium at and the Netherlands at . Americans consume annually per capita.


Nutrition
Raw cabbage is 92% water, 6% , 1% , and contains negligible (table). In a reference amount of , raw cabbage supplies 25 , and is a rich source of and , containing 41% and 63%, respectively, of the (DV, table), and a moderate source of (11% DV), with no other in significant content.


Local market and storage
Cabbages sold for market are generally smaller, and different varieties are used for those sold immediately upon harvest and those stored before sale. Those used for processing, especially sauerkraut, are larger and have a lower percentage of water. Both hand and mechanical harvesting are used, and hand-harvesting is generally used for cabbages destined for market sales. In commercial-scale operations, hand-harvested cabbages are trimmed, sorted, and packed directly in the field to increase efficiency.Katz and Weaver, p. 285

rapidly refrigerates the vegetable, allowing for earlier shipping and a fresher product. Cabbage can be stored the longest at with a humidity of 90–100%; these conditions will result in up to six months of longevity. When stored under less ideal conditions, cabbage can still last up to four months.


Food preparation
is prepared and consumed in many ways. The simplest options include eating the vegetable raw or it, though many cuisines pickle, , or cabbage. Savoy cabbages are usually used in salads. Smooth-leaf types are both sold to consumers and used for commercial processing. Pickling is a common way of preserving cabbage, creating dishes such as and , although kimchi is more often made from (a related but separate species).

In Poland, cabbage is one of the main food crops, and it features prominently in . It is frequently eaten, either cooked or as sauerkraut, as a side dish or as an ingredient in such dishes as (cabbage, sauerkraut, meat, and wild mushrooms, among other ingredients), gołąbki (stuffed cabbage), and (filled dumplings). Other eastern European countries, such as Hungary and Romania, also have traditional dishes that feature cabbage as a main ingredient.

(2025). 9781418049652, Cengage Learning. .

and cabbage is a staple of Chinese cooking,Tannahill, p. 146 while the British dish bubble and squeak is made primarily with leftover and boiled cabbage and eaten with cold meat.Tannahill, p. 277 In India and Ethiopia, cabbage is often included in spicy salads and braises.

(2025). 9780544187504, Houghton Mifflin Harcourt. .
In the United States, cabbage is used primarily for the production of , followed by market use and sauerkraut production.


Phytochemicals and cancer research
in cabbage and other cruciferous vegetables, including such compounds as , , and other , are under basic research to determine their possible biological effects.

Although the relationship between a diet rich in cruciferous vegetables and the risk of has been widely studied, there remains insufficient evidence that consuming cabbage compounds decreases cancer risk, as of 2024.


Herbalism
In addition to its usual purpose as an edible vegetable, cabbage has been used historically in . The recommended consuming the vegetable as a , and used cabbage juice as an antidote for mushroom poisoning,
(2025). 9780139569968, Prentice Hall.
for eye , and for for bruises. The ancient Roman, Pliny the Elder, described both culinary and medicinal properties of the vegetable.
(1996). 9780892363940, Getty Publications. .
ate cooked cabbage at the beginning of meals to reduce the intoxicating effects of wine. This traditional usage persisted in European literature until the mid-20th century.

The supposed cooling properties of the leaves were used in Britain as a treatment for in World War I, and as compresses for and . Other medicinal uses recorded in European folk medicine include treatments for , , , , and melancholy.

(2025). 9781576078747, ABC-CLIO. .
Both mashed cabbage and cabbage juice have been used in to remove and treat , , , and ulcers.


See also


Works cited


External links

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