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An augur was a priest and official in the ancient Rome world. His main role was the practice of augury, the interpretation of the will of the gods by studying events he observed within a predetermined sacred space ( templum). The templum corresponded to the heavenly space above. The augur's decisions were based on what he personally saw or heard from within the templum; they included thunder, lightning and any accidental signs such as falling objects, but in particular, birdsigns; whether the birds he saw flew in groups or alone, what noises they made as they flew, the direction of flight, what kind of birds they were, how many there were, or how they fed. This practice was known as " taking the auspices". As circumstance did not always favour the convenient appearance of wild birds or weather phenomena, domesticated chickens kept for the purpose were sometimes released into the templum, where their behaviour, particularly how they fed, could be studied by the augur.Beard, et al, volume 1, pp.22-24, 27-28
The augural ceremony and function of the augur was central to any major undertaking in Roman society – public or private – including matters of war, commerce, and religion. Augurs sought the divine will regarding any proposed course of action which might affect Rome's pax, fortuna, and salus (peace, good fortune, and well-being).Brent (1999), p. 20.
Historically, augury was performed by priests of the college of augurs on behalf of senior magistrates. The practice itself likely comes from the neighboring region of Etruria, where augurs were highly respected as officials. Magistrates were empowered to conduct augury as required for the performance of their official duties. Magistracies included senior military and civil ranks, which were therefore religious offices in their own right, and magistrates were directly responsible for the pax, fortuna, and salus of Rome and everything that was Roman.
The presiding magistrate at an augural rite held the "right of augury" ( ius augurii).Brent (1999), pp. 17, 20: Brent describes augury as the "spiritual equivalent of consulting the polls". The right of nuntiatio – announcing the appearance of auspicia oblativa (unexpected sign) – was reserved for the officiating augur, which would require the interruption of the proceedings then underway.
In the Regal period, which ended 509 BC, tradition holds that there were three augurs at a time; they numbered nine by the third century BC; Sulla increased their number to fifteen. By the Principate, their numbers swelled even further to an estimated 25 members.
Roman augurs were part of a college (Latin collegium) of priests who shared the duties and responsibilities of the position. At the foundation of the Roman Republic in 510 Before Christ, the patricians held sole claim to this office; by 300 BC, the office was open to plebeian occupation as well. Senior members of the collegium put forth nominations for any vacancies, and members voted on whom to co-option.
According to Cicero, the auctoritas of ius augurum included the right to adjourn and overturn the process of law: Consular election could be – and was – rendered invalid by inaugural error. For Cicero, this made the augur the most powerful authority in the Republic. Cicero himself was co-opted into the college only late in his career.Cicero replaced Publius Crassus after the latter's death at Carrhae.
In the later Republic, augury was supervised by the college of pontifices, a priestly-magistral office whose powers were increasingly woven into the cursus honorum. The office of pontifex maximus eventually became a de facto consular prerogative.Brent (1999), pp. 19–25: citing Cicero, De Natura Deorum, 2.4.
When his colleague Lepidus died, Augustus assumed his office as pontifex maximus, took priestly control over the State oracles (including the Sibylline books), and used his powers as Roman censor to suppress the circulation of "unapproved" oracles.Brent (1999), p. 59: citing Suetonius, Augustus 31.1–2. cf. official reactions to "foreign cult" during the Punic crises, above.
Despite their lack of political influence under the Roman Empire, the augurate, as with its fellow quattuor amplissima collegia, continued to confer prestige on its members.
The augures publici (public augurs) concerned themselves only with matters related to the state. The role of the augur was that of consulting and interpreting the will of gods about some course of action such as accession of kings to the throne, of magistrates and major sacerdotes to their functions (inauguration) and all public enterprises. It sufficed to say that the augur or magistrate had heard a clap of thunder to suspend the convocation of the comitia.Cicero, De Divinatione, 2.72–73
The jus augurale (augural law) was rigorously secret, therefore very little about the technical aspects of ceremonies and rituals has been recorded. We have only the names of some auguria:
The terms augurium and auspicium are used indifferently by ancient authors.e.g. in Cicero, De Legibus, De Divinatione. Modern scholars have debated the issue at length but have failed to find a distinctive definition that may hold for all the known cases. By such considerations Dumezil thinks that the two terms refer in fact to two aspects of the same religious act:
Only some species of birds ( aves augurales) could yield valid signsCicero, De Divinatione, 2.76 whose meaning would vary according to the species. Among them were , , , Bearded Vulture, and .
Signs from birds were divided into alites, from the flight, and oscines, from the voice: The alites included region of the sky, height and type of flight, behaviour of the bird and place where it would come to rest. The oscines included the pitch and direction of the sound.Festus, p. 348 L2; Varro, Lingua Latina, 6.76
The enunciation of the requested auspicia that began the observation portion of the ceremony was called legum dictio.Maurus Servius Honoratus, In Vergilii Aeneidem commentarii, 3.89 Observation conditions were rigorous and required absolute silence for validity of the operation. Technically the sky was divided into four sections or regions: dextera, sinistra, antica, and postica (right, left, anterior and posterior).Varro, Lingua Latina, 7.7
The prototype of the ritual of inauguration of people is described in Livy'sLivy, Ab Urbe Condita, 1.18, 5.10 description of the inauguration of king Numa Pompilius:
The augur asks Jupiter: signa belong to Jupiter " Si fas est" (i.e. if it is divine justice to do this) "... send me a certain signum (sign)" then the augur listed the auspicia he wanted to see. When they appeared Numa was declared king.
During the last centuries of the republic the auspices ex caelo and ex tripudiis supplanted other types, as the other forms could be easily used in a fraudulent way, i.e. bent to suit the desire of the asking person.Cicero, De Divinatione, 2.72–73 Cicero condemned the fraudulent use and denounced the decline in the level of knowledge of the doctrine by the augurs of his time,Cicero, De Divinatione, 1.25; Leg. Agr., 2.32 and 2.34 but in fact the abuse developed from the evasion of negative signs, described in the next subsection.
The very story or legend of the foundation of Rome is based on augury. the ascertaining of the will of gods through observation of the sky and of birds. Romulus and Remus indeed acted as augurs and Romulus was considered a great augur throughout the course of his life.
The character that best represented and portrayed the art however was Attus Navius. His story is related by Cicero:
He was born into a very poor family. One day he lost one of his pigs. He then promised the gods that if he found it, he would offer them the biggest grapes growing in his vineyard. After recovering his pig he stood right at the middle of his grape yard facing South. He divided the sky into four sections and observed birds: when they appeared he walked in that direction and found an extraordinary large grape that he offered to the gods.His story was immediately famous and he became the augur of the king (see above the episode with king Tarquinius narrated by Livy). Henceforth he was considered the patron of the augurs.Cicero, De Divinatione, 1.17
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