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Velociraptor (; ) is a genus of small dromaeosaurid that lived in Asia during the Late Cretaceous epoch, about 75 million to 71 million years ago (Mya). Two species are currently recognized, although others have been assigned in the past. The type species is V. mongoliensis, named and described in 1924. of this species have been discovered in the Djadochta Formation, Mongolia. A second species, V. osmolskae, was named in 2008 for skull material from the Bayan Mandahu Formation, China. A possible record is known from the Nemegt Formation.
Smaller than other dromaeosaurids like Deinonychus and Achillobator, Velociraptor was about long with a body mass of around . It nevertheless shared many of the same anatomy features. It was a , carnivore with a long tail and an enlarged sickle-shaped claw on each hindfoot, which is thought to have been used to tackle and restrain Predation. Velociraptor can be distinguished from other dromaeosaurids by its long and low skull, with an upturned snout.
Velociraptor (commonly referred to as "raptor") is one of the dinosaur genera most familiar to the general public due to its prominent role in the Jurassic Park films. In reality, however, Velociraptor was roughly the size of a turkey, considerably smaller than the approximately tall and reptiles seen in the novels and films (which were based on members of the related genus Deinonychus). Today, Velociraptor is well known to paleontology, with over a dozen described fossil skeletons. One particularly famous specimen preserves a Velociraptor locked in combat with a Protoceratops.
While North American teams were shut out of communist Mongolia during the Cold War, expeditions by Soviet Union and Polish scientists, in collaboration with Mongolian colleagues, recovered several more specimens of Velociraptor. The most famous is part of the "Fighting Dinosaurs" specimen (MPC-D 100/25; formerly IGM, GIN, or GI SPS), discovered by a Polish-Mongolian team in 1971. The fossil preserves a Velociraptor in battle against a Protoceratops. It is considered a national treasure of Mongolia, and in 2000 it was loaned to the American Museum of Natural History in New York City for a temporary exhibition.
Between 1988 and 1990, a joint China-Canadians team discovered Velociraptor remains in northern China. American scientists returned to Mongolia in 1990, and a joint Mongolian-American expedition to the Gobi, led by the American Museum of Natural History and the Mongolian Academy of Sciences, turned up several well-preserved skeletons. One such specimen, MPC-D 100/980, was nicknamed "Ichabodcraniosaurus" by Norell's team because the fairly complete specimen was found without its skull (an allusion to the Washington Irving character Ichabod Crane).Novacek, Michael J. (1996). Dinosaurs of the Flaming Cliffs. New York: Anchor Books. . While Norell and Makovicky provisionally considered it a specimen of Velociraptor mongoliensis, it was named as a new species Shri devi in 2021.
In 1999, Rinchen Barsbold and Halszka Osmólska reported a juvenile Velociraptor specimen (GIN or IGM 100/2000), represented by a complete skeleton including the skull of a young individual. It was found at the Tugriken Shireh locality of the Djadochta Formation during the context of the Mongolian-Japanese Palaeontological Expeditions. The coauthors stated that detailed descriptions of this and other specimens would be published at a later date.
Paleontologists Mark A. Norell and Peter J. Makovicky in 1997 described new and well preserved specimens of V. mongoliensis, namely MPC-D 100/985 collected from the Tugrik Shireh locality in 1993, and MPC-D 100/986 collected in 1993 from the Chimney Buttes locality. The team briefly mentioned another specimen, MPC-D 100/982, which by the time of this publication remained undescribed. In 1999 Norell and Makovicky provided more insights into the anatomy of Velociraptor with additional specimens. Among these, MPC-D 100/982 was partially described and figured, and referred to V. mongoliensis mainly based on cranial similarities with the holotype skull, although they stated that differences were present between the pelvic region of this specimen and other Velociraptor specimens. This relatively well-preserved specimen including the skull was discovered and collected in 1995 at the Bayn Dzak locality (specifically at the "Volcano" sub-locality). Martin Kundrát in a 2004 abstract compared the neurocranium of MPC-D 100/982 to another Velociraptor specimen, MPC-D 100/976. He concluded that the overall morphology of the former was more derived (advanced) than the latter, suggesting that they could represent distinct taxa.
Mark J. Powers in his 2020 master thesis fully described MPC-D 100/982, which he concluded to represent a new and third species of Velociraptor. This species, which he considered distinct, was stated to mainly differ from other Velociraptor species in having a shallow maxilla morphology. Powers and colleagues also in 2020 used morphometric analyses to compare several dromaeosaurid maxillae, and found the maxilla of MPC-D 100/982 to strongly differ from specimens referred to Velociraptor. They indicated that this specimen, based on these results, represents a different species. In 2021 Powers with team used Principal Component Analysis to separate dromaeosaurid maxillae, most notably finding that MPC-D 100/982 falls outside the instraspecific variability of V. mongoliensis, arguing for a distinct species. They considered that both V. mongoliensis and this new species were ecologically separated based on their skull anatomy. The team in another 2021 abstract reinforced again the species-level separation, noting that additional differences can be found in the hindlimbs.
Prominent quill knobs—attachment site of "wing" feathers and direct indicator of a feather covering—have been reported from the ulna of a single Velociraptor specimen (IGM 100/981), which represents an animal of estimated long and in weight. The spacing of 6 preserved knobs suggests that 8 additional knobs may have been present, giving a total of 14 quill knobs that developed large secondaries ("wing" feathers stemming from the forearm). However, the specimen number has been corrected to IGM 100/3503 and its referral to Velociraptor may require reevaluation, pending further study. Nevertheless, there is strong phylogenetic evidence from other dromaeosaurid relatives that indicates the presence of feathers in Velociraptor, including dromaeosaurids such as Daurlong, Microraptor, or Zhenyuanlong.
The lower jaw of Velociraptor comprised mainly the dentary, splenial, angular, surangular, and articular bones. The was a very long, weakly curved, and narrow element that developed several alveoli on its top surface. On its posterior end, it meet the . It had a small hole near its posterior end, called surangular foramen or fenestra. Both bones were the largest elements of the lower jaw of Velociraptor, contributing to virtually its entire length. Below them were the smaller and , closely articulated to each other. The , located on the inner side of the surangular, was a small element that joined the quadrate of the upper skull, enabling the articulation with the lower jaw. An elongated, near oval-shaped hole was developed in the center of the lower jaw (the mandibular fenestra), and it was produced by the joint of the dentary, surangular, and angular bones.
The teeth of Velociraptor were fairly homodont (equal in shape) and had several denticles (serrations), each more strongly serrated on the back edge than the front. The premaxilla had 4 alveoli (meaning that 4 teeth were developed), and the maxilla had 11 alveoli. At the dentary, between 14–15 alveoli were present. All teeth present at the premaxilla were poorly curved, and the two first teeth were the longest, with the second having a characteristic large size. The maxillary teeth were more slender, recurved, and most notably, the lower end was strongly more serrated than the upper one.
When first described in 1924, Velociraptor was placed in the family Megalosauridae, as was the case with most carnivorous dinosaurs at the time (Megalosauridae, like Megalosaurus, functioned as a sort of 'wastebin' taxon, where many unrelated species were grouped together). As dinosaur discoveries multiplied, Velociraptor was later recognized as a dromaeosaurid. All dromaeosaurids have also been referred to the family Archaeopterygidae by at least one author (which would, in effect, make Velociraptor a flightless bird). In the past, other dromaeosaurid species, including Deinonychus antirrhopus and Saurornitholestes langstoni, have sometimes been classified in the genus Velociraptor. Since Velociraptor was the first to be named, these species were renamed Velociraptor antirrhopus and V. langstoni.
Because of the presence of another dromaeosaurid in Ukhaa Tolgod, Tsaagan, Napoli and team have noted that the referral of this specimen to Velociraptor is currently subject to reexamination.
Manabu Sakamoto in 2022 performed a Bayesian phylogenetic predictive modelling framework for estimating jaw muscle parameters and bite forces of several extinct archosaurs, based on skull widths and phylogenetic relationships between groups. Among studied taxa, Velociraptor was scored with a bite force of 304 N, which was lower than that of other dromaeosaurids such as Dromaeosaurus (885 N) or Deinonychus (706 N).
Remains of Deinonychus, a closely related dromaeosaurid, have commonly been found in aggregations of several individuals. Deinonychus has also been found in association with the large ornithopod Tenontosaurus, which has been cited as evidence of cooperative (pack) hunting. However, the only solid evidence for social behavior of any kind among dromaeosaurids comes from a Chinese trackway which shows six individuals of a large species moving as a group. Although many isolated fossils of Velociraptor have been found in Mongolia, none were closely associated with other individuals. Therefore, while Velociraptor is commonly depicted as a pack hunter, as in Jurassic Park, there is only limited fossil evidence to support this theory for dromaeosaurids in general and none specific to Velociraptor itself. Dromeosaur footprints in China suggest that a few other raptor genera may have hunted in packs, but there have been no conclusive examples of pack behavior found.Long, John, and Schouten, Peter. (2008). Feathered Dinosaurs: The Origin of Birds. Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press. , p. 21.
In 2011, Denver Fowler and colleagues suggested a new method by which dromaeosaurs like Velociraptor and similar dromaeosaurs may have captured and restrained prey. This model, known as the "raptor prey restraint" (RPR) model of predation, proposes that dromaeosaurs killed their prey in a manner very similar to extant Accipitridae birds of prey: by leaping onto their quarry, pinning it under their body weight, and gripping it tightly with the large, sickle-shaped claws. These researchers proposed that, like accipitrids, the dromaeosaur would then begin to feed on the animal while it was still alive, and prey death would eventually result from blood loss and organ failure. This proposal is based primarily on comparisons between the morphology and proportions of the feet and legs of dromaeosaurs to several groups of extant birds of prey with known predatory behaviors. Fowler found that the feet and legs of dromaeosaurs most closely resemble those of and , especially in terms of having an enlarged second claw and a similar range of grasping motion. The short Tarsometatarsus and foot strength, however, would have been more similar to that of . The RPR method of predation would be consistent with other aspects of Velociraptors anatomy, such as their unusual jaw and arm morphology. The arms, which could exert a lot of force but were likely covered in long feathers, may have been used as flapping stabilizers for balance while atop a struggling prey animal, along with the stiff counterbalancing tail. The jaws, thought by Fowler and colleagues to be comparatively weak, would have been useful for row saw motion bites like the modern day Komodo dragon, which also has a weak bite, to finish off its prey if the kicks were not powerful enough. These predatory adaptations working together may also have implications for the origin of flapping in .
In 2012, Hone and colleagues published a paper that described a Velociraptor specimen with a long bone of an azhdarchid pterosaur in its gut. This was interpreted as showing scavenging behaviour.
In a 2024 study by Tse, Miller, and Pittman et al., focusing on the skull morphology and bite forces of various dromaeosaurids, it was discovered that Velociraptor had high bite force resistance compared to other dromaeosaurids such as Dromaeosaurus itself and Deinonychus, the latter of which was much larger. It is theorized by the authors that high bite force resistance was an adaptation towards obtaining food through scavenging more often than through active predation in Velociraptor.
In 2023, Seishiro Tada and team examined the nasal cavities of ectotherm (cold-blooded) or endotherm (warm-blooded) species, in order to evaluate the thermoregulatory physiology of non-avian dinosaurs compared to these groups. They found that the size of the nasal cavity relative to the head size of extant endotherms is larger than those of extant ectotherms, and among taxa, Velociraptor was recovered below the extant endotherms level by reconstructing its nasal respiratory cavity. Tada with team suggested that Velociraptor and most other non-avian dinosaurs may not have possessed a fully or well-developed nasal thermoregulation apparatus as modern endothermic animals do.
In 2012 David Hone and team reported another injured Velociraptor specimen (MPC-D 100/54, roughly a sub-adult individual) found with the bones of an Azhdarchidae pterosaur within its stomach cavity, was carrying or recovering from an injury sustained to one broken rib. From evidence on the pterosaur bones, which were devoid of pitting or deformations from digestion, the Velociraptor died shortly after, possibly from the earlier injury. Nevertheless, the team noted that this broken ribs shows signs of bone healing.
V. osmolskae lived alongside the ankylosaurid Pinacosaurus mephistocephalus; alvarezsaurid Linhenykus; closely related dromaeosaurid Linheraptor; oviraptorids Machairasaurus and Wulatelong; protoceratopsids Bagaceratops and Protoceratops hellenikorhinus; and troodontids Linhevenator, Papiliovenator, and Philovenator. Sediments across the formation indicate a similar depositional environment to that of the Djadochta Formation.
The Djadochta Formation is separated into a lower Bayn Dzak Member and upper Turgrugyin Member. V. mongoliensis is known from both members, represented by numerous specimens. The Bayn Dzak Member (mainly Bayn Dzak locality) has yielded the oviraptorid Oviraptor; ankylosaurid Pinacosaurus grangeri; protoceratopsid Protoceratops andrewsi; and troodontid Saurornithoides. The younger Turgrugyin Member (mainly Tugriken Shireh locality) has produced the bird Elsornis; dromaeosaurid Mahakala: ornithomimid Aepyornithomimus; and protoceratopsid Protoceratops andrewsi.
V. mongoliensis has been found at many of the most famous and prolific Djadochta localities. The type specimen was discovered at the Flaming Cliffs site (sublocality of the larger Bayn Dzak locality/region), while the "Fighting Dinosaurs" were found at the Tugrik Shire locality (also known as Tugrugeen Shireh and many other spellings). The latter is notorious for its exceptional in situ fossil preservation. Based on deposits (such as structureless sandstones), it has been concluded that a large number of specimens were buried alive during powerful sand-bearing events, common to these paleoenvironments.
Production on Jurassic Park began before the discovery of the large dromaeosaurid Utahraptor was made public in 1991, but as Jody Duncan wrote about this discovery: "Later, after we had designed and built the raptor, there was a discovery of a raptor skeleton in Utah, which they labeled 'super-slasher.' They had uncovered the largest Velociraptor to date and it measured five-and-a-half-feet tall, just like ours. So we designed it, we built it, and then they discovered it. That still boggles my mind." Spielberg's name was briefly considered for naming of the new dinosaur in exchange for funding of field work, but no agreement was reached.
Jurassic Park and its sequel were released before the discovery that dromaeosaurs had feathers, so the Velociraptor in both films were depicted as scaled and featherless. For Jurassic Park III, the male Velociraptor was given quill-like structures along the back of the head and neck, but these structures do not resemble the feathers that Velociraptor would have had in reality due to reasons of continuity. The Jurassic World sequel trilogy ignored the feathers of Velociraptor, adhering to the designs from Jurassic Park. However, the dromaeosaur Pyroraptor was feathered for Jurassic World Dominion, along with other changes such as stiffening the tail to account for ossified tendons and de-pronating the hands.
Additional species
and a lacrimal bone (the main tooth-bearing bones of the upper jaw, and the bone that forms the anterior margin of the eye socket, respectively) recovered from the Bayan Mandahu Formation in 1999 by the Sino-Belgian Dinosaur Expeditions were found to pertain to Velociraptor, but not to the type species V. mongoliensis. Pascal Godefroit and colleagues named these bones V. osmolskae (for Polish paleontologist Halszka Osmólska) in 2008. However, the 2013 study noted that while "the elongate shape of the maxilla in V. osmolskae is similar to that of V. mongoliensis," phylogenetic analysis found it to be closer to Linheraptor, making the genus Paraphyly; thus, V. osmolskae might not actually belong to the genus Velociraptor and requires reassessment.
Description
Velociraptor was a small to medium-sized dromaeosaurid, with adults measuring between long, approximately high at the hips, Supporting Online Material and weighing about . Supporting Information
Skull
The skull of Velociraptor was rather elongated and grew up to long. It was uniquely up-curved at the snout region, concave on the upper surface, and convex on the lower surface. The snout, which occupied about 60% of the entire skull length, was notably narrow and mainly formed by the nasal, premaxilla, and maxilla bones. The was the anteriormost bone in the skull, and it was longer than taller. While its posterior end joined the nasal, the main body of the premaxilla touched the maxilla. The was nearly triangular in shape and the largest element of the snout. On its center or main body, there was a depression developing a small oval to circular-shaped hole, called maxillary fenestra. Though in front of this fenestra were two small openings, referred to as promaxillary fenestrae. The posterior border of the maxilla formed (predominantly) the antorbital fenestra, one of the several large holes in the skull. Both premaxilla and maxilla had several Dental alveolus (tooth sockets) on their bottom surfaces. Above the maxilla and making contact with the premaxilla, there was the bone. It was a thin/narrow and elongated bone contributing to the top surface of the snout. Together, both premaxilla and nasal bones gave form to the naris or narial fenestra (nostril opening), which was relatively large and circular. The posterior end of the nasal was joined by the frontal and lacrimal bones.
The back or posterior region of the skull was built by the frontal, lacrimal, postorbital, jugal, parietal, quadrate, and quadratojugal bones. The was large element, having a vaguely rectangular shape when seen from above. On its posterior end, this bone was in contact with the , and such elements were the main bodies of the skull roof. The was a T-shaped bone and its main body was thin and delicated. Its lower end meet the (often called cheek bone), which was a large, sub-triangular-shaped element. Its lower border was notably straight/horizontal. The was located just above the jugal: a stocky and strongly T-shaped bone. As a whole, the orbit or orbital fenestra (eye socket)—formed by the lacrimal, jugal, frontal, and postorbital—was large and near circular in shape, being longer than taller. When seen from above, a pair of large and markedly rounded holes were present near the rear of the skull (the temporal fenestrae), whose main components were the postorbital and squamosal. Behind the jugal, an inverted T-shaped bone (also seen in other dromaeosaurids), known as the , was developed. While the upper end of the quadratojugal joined the , an irregularly-shaped element, its inner side meet the . The latter was of great importance for the articulation with the lower jaw. The posteriormost bone was the and its projection the occipital condyle: a rounded and bulbous protuberance that meet the first vertebra of the neck.
Postcranial skeleton
The arm of Velociraptor was formed by the humerus (upper arm bone), radius and ulna (forearm bones), and manus (hand). Velociraptor, like other dromaeosaurids, had a large manus with three elongated digits (fingers), which ended up in strongly curved unguals (claw bones) that were similar in construction and flexibility to the wing bones of modern . The second digit was the longest of the three digits present, while the first was shortest. The structure of the carpal (wrist) bones prevented pronation of the wrist and forced the manus to be held with the palmar surface facing inward (medially), not downward. The pes (foot) anatomy of Velociraptor consisted of the metatarsus—a large element composed of three metatarsals of which the first one was extremely reduced in size—and four digits that developed large unguals. The first digit, as in other theropods, was a small dewclaw. The second digit, for which Velociraptor is most famous, was highly modified and held retracted off the ground, which caused Velociraptor and other dromaeosaurids to walk on only their third and fourth digits. It bore a relatively large, sickle-shaped claw, typical of dromaeosaurid and troodontid dinosaurs. This enlarged claw, which could grow to over long around its outer edge, was most likely a predatory device used to restrain struggling prey.
As in other dromaeosaurs, Velociraptor tails had prezygapophysis (long bony projections) on the upper surfaces of the , as well as ossification underneath. The prezygapophyses began on the tenth tail (caudal) vertebra and extended forward to brace four to ten additional vertebrae, depending on position in the tail. These were once thought to fully stiffen the tail, forcing the entire tail to act as a single rod-like unit. However, at least one specimen has preserved a series of intact tail vertebrae curved sideways into an S-shape, suggesting that there was considerably more horizontal flexibility than once thought.
Classification
Velociraptor is a member of the group Eudromaeosauria, a Synapomorphy sub-group of the larger family Dromaeosauridae. It is often placed within its own subfamily, Velociraptorinae. In phylogenetic taxonomy, Velociraptorinae is usually defined as "all dromaeosaurs more closely related to Velociraptor than to Dromaeosaurus." However, dromaeosaurid classification is highly variable. Originally, the subfamily Velociraptorinae was erected solely to contain Velociraptor. Other analyses have often included other genera, usually Deinonychus and Saurornitholestes, and more recently Tsaagan. Several studies published during the 2010s, including expanded versions of the analyses that found support for Velociraptorinae, have failed to resolve it as a distinct group, but rather have suggested it is a paraphyletic grade which gave rise to the Dromaeosaurinae.
(1988). 9780671619466, Simon & Schuster. ISBN 9780671619466 the only currently recognized species of Velociraptor are V. mongoliensis (2026). 9780520242098, University of California Press. ISBN 9780520242098 and V. osmolskae. However, several studies have found " V." osmolskae to be distantly related to V. mongoliensis. Material was copied from this source, which is available under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License .
Below are the results for the Eudromaeosauria phylogeny based on the phylogenetics conducted by James G. Napoli and team in 2021 during the description of Kuru kulla, showing the position of Velociraptor:
Paleobiology
Feathers
In 2007 Alan H. Turner and colleagues reported the presence of six quill knobs in the ulna of a referred Velociraptor specimen (IGM 100/981) from the Ukhaa Tolgod locality of the Djadochta Formation. Turner and colleagues interpreted the presence of feathers on Velociraptor as evidence against the idea that the larger, flightless lost their feathers secondarily due to larger body size. Furthermore, they noted that quill knobs are almost never found in flightless bird species today, and that their presence in Velociraptor (presumed to have been flightless due to its relatively large size and short forelimbs) is evidence that the ancestors of dromaeosaurids could fly, making Velociraptor and other large members of this family secondarily flightless, though it is possible the large wing feathers inferred in the ancestors of Velociraptor had a purpose other than flight. The feathers of the flightless Velociraptor may have been used for display, for covering their nests while brooding, or for added speed and thrust when running up inclined slopes.
Senses
Examinations of the endocranium of Velociraptor indicate that it was able to detect and hear a wide range of sound frequencies (2,368–3,965 Hz) and could track prey with ease as a result. The endocranium examinations also further cemented the theory that the dromaeosaur was an agile, swift predator. Fossil evidence suggesting Velociraptor scavenged also indicates that it was an opportunistic and actively predatory animal, feeding on carrion during times of drought or famine, if in poor health, or depending on the animal's age.
Feeding
In 2020, Powers and colleagues re-examined the maxillae of several Eudromaeosauria taxa concluding that most Asian and North American eudromaeosaurs were separated by snout morphology and ecological strategies. They found the maxilla to be a reliable reference when inferring the shape of the premaxilla and overall snout. For instance, most Asian species have elongated snouts based on the maxilla (namely velociraptorines), indicating a selective feeding in Velociraptor and relatives, such as picking up small, fast prey. In contrast, most North American eudromaeosaurs, mostly dromaeosaurines, feature a robust and deep maxillar morphology. However, the large dromaeosurine Achillobator is a unique exception to Asian taxa with its deep maxilla.
Predatory behavior
The "Fighting Dinosaurs" specimen, found in 1971, preserves a Velociraptor mongoliensis and Protoceratops in combat and provides direct evidence of predatory behavior. When originally reported, it was hypothesized that the two animals drowned. However, as the animals were preserved in ancient sand dune deposits, it is now thought that the animals were buried in sand, either from a collapsing dune or in a Dust storm. Burial must have been extremely rapid, judging from the lifelike poses in which the animals were preserved. Parts of the Protoceratops are missing, which has been seen as evidence of scavenger by other animals. Comparisons between the sclerotic ring of Velociraptor, Protoceratops, and modern birds and reptiles indicates that Velociraptor may have been nocturnal, while Protoceratops may have been cathemeral, active throughout the day during short intervals, suggesting that the fight may have occurred at twilight or during low-light conditions.
The distinctive claw, on the second digit of dromaeosaurids, has traditionally been depicted as a slashing weapon; its assumed use being to cut and disembowel prey. In the "Fighting Dinosaurs" specimen, the Velociraptor lies underneath, with one of its sickle claws apparently embedded in the throat of its prey, while the beak of Protoceratops is clamped down upon the right forelimb of its attacker. This suggests Velociraptor may have used its sickle claw to pierce vital organs of the throat, such as the jugular vein, carotid artery, or trachea (windpipe), rather than slashing the abdomen. The inside edge of the claw was rounded and not unusually sharp, which may have precluded any sort of cutting or slashing action, although only the bony core of the claw is preserved. The thick abdominal wall of skin and muscle of large prey species would have been difficult to slash without a specialized cutting surface. The slashing hypothesis was tested during a 2005 BBC documentary, The Truth About Killer Dinosaurs. The producers of the program created an artificial Velociraptor leg with a sickle claw and used a pork belly to simulate the dinosaur's prey. Though the sickle claw did penetrate the abdominal wall, it was unable to tear it open, indicating that the claw was not used to disembowel prey.
Scavenging behavior
In 2010, Hone and colleagues published a paper on their 2008 discovery of shed teeth of what they believed to be a Velociraptor near a tooth-marked jaw bone of what they believed to be a Protoceratops in the Bayan Mandahu Formation. The authors concluded that the find represented "late-stage carcass consumption by Velociraptor" as the predator would have eaten other parts of a freshly killed Protoceratops before biting in the jaw area. The evidence was seen as supporting the inference from the "Fighting Dinosaurs" fossil that Protoceratops was part of the diet of Velociraptor.
Metabolism
Velociraptor was warm-blooded to some degree, as it required a significant amount of energy to hunt. Modern animals that possess feathery or furry coats, like Velociraptor did, tend to be warm-blooded, since these coverings function as insulation. However, bone growth rates in dromaeosaurids and some early birds suggest a more moderate metabolism, compared with most modern warm-blooded mammals and birds. The kiwi is similar to dromaeosaurids in anatomy, feather type, bone structure and even the narrow anatomy of the nasal passages (usually a key indicator of metabolism). The kiwi is a highly active, if specialized, flightless bird, with a stable body temperature and a fairly low resting metabolic rate, making it a good model for the metabolism of primitive birds and dromaeosaurids.
Paleopathology
Norell with colleagues in 1995 reported one V. mongoliensis skull bearing two parallel rows of small punctures on its frontal bones that, upon closer examination, match the spacing and size of Velociraptor teeth. They suggested that the wound was likely inflicted by another Velociraptor during a fight within the species. Because its bone structure shows no sign of Bone healing near the bite wounds and the overall specimen was not scavenged, this individual was likely killed by this fatal wound. In 2001 Molnar and team noted that this specimen is MPC-D 100/976 hailing from the Tugrik Shireh locality, which has also yielded the Fighting Dinosaurs specimen. (2026). 9780253339072, Indiana Univ. Press. ISBN 9780253339072
Paleoenvironment
Bayan Mandahu Formation
In both Bayan Mandahu and Djadochta formations many of the same genera were present, though they varied at the species level. These differences in species composition may be due a natural barrier separating the two formations, which are relatively close to each other geographically. However, given the lack of any known barrier which would cause the specific faunal compositions found in these areas, it is more likely that those differences indicate a slight time difference.
Djadochta Formation
Known specimens of Velociraptor mongoliensis have been recovered from the Djadochta Formation (also spelled Djadokhta), in the province of Ömnögovi. This geological formation is estimated to date back to the Campanian stage (between 75 million and 71 million years ago) of the Late Cretaceous epoch. The abundant sediments—, , or caliche—of the Djadochta Formation were deposited by eolian (wind) processes in arid settings with fields of sand and only intermittent , as indicated by very sparse fluvial (river-deposited) sedimentation, under a semi-arid climate.
Cultural significance
Velociraptor is commonly perceived as a vicious and cunning killer thanks to their portrayal in the 1990 novel Jurassic Park by Michael Crichton and its 1993 film adaptation, directed by Steven Spielberg. The "raptors" portrayed in Jurassic Park were actually modeled after the closely related Dromaeosauridae Deinonychus. Paleontologists in both the novel and film excavate a skeleton in Montana, far from the central Asian range of Velociraptor but characteristic of the Deinonychus range. Crichton met with the discoverer of Deinonychus, John Ostrom, several times at Yale University to discuss details of the animal's possible range of behaviors and appearance. Crichton at one point apologetically told Ostrom that he had decided to use the name Velociraptor in place of Deinonychus because the former name was "more dramatic." According to Ostrom, Crichton stated that the Velociraptor of the novel was based on Deinonychus in almost every detail, and that only the name had been changed. The Jurassic Park filmmakers also requested all of Ostrom's published papers on Deinonychus during production.Cummings, M. " Yale's legacy in Jurassic World ." Yale News, 18 June 2015. They portrayed the animals with the size, proportions, and snout shape of Deinonychus rather than Velociraptor.
See also
External links
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