Symbiosis (Ancient Greek συμβίωσις symbíōsis: living with, companionship < σύν sýn: together; and βίωσις bíōsis: living)[, , ] is any type of a close and long-term biological interaction, between two of different species. The two organisms, termed symbionts, can for example be in mutualistic, commensalism, or parasitism relationships.
The term is sometimes more exclusively used in a restricted, mutualistic sense, where both symbionts contribute to each other's subsistence. This means that they benefit each other in some way.
Symbiosis can be obligate (or obligative), which means that one, or both of the organisms depend on each other for survival, or facultative (optional), when they can also subsist independently.
Symbiosis is also classified by physical attachment. Symbionts forming a single body live in conjunctive symbiosis, while all other arrangements are called disjunctive symbiosis.["Symbiosis". Dorland's Illustrated Medical Dictionary. Philadelphia: Elsevier Health Sciences, 2007. Credo Reference. Web. 17 September 2012] When one organism lives on the surface of another, such as Head louse on humans, it is called ectosymbiosis; when one partner lives inside the tissues of another, such as Symbiodinium within coral, it is termed Endosymbiont.
Definition
The definition of
symbiosis was a matter of debate for 130 years.
In 1877, Albert Bernhard Frank used the term
symbiosis to describe the mutualistic relationship found in
.
[ From p. 195: "Nach den erweiterten Kenntnissen, die wir in den letzten Jahren über das Zusammenleben zweier verschiedenartiger Wesen gewonnen haben, ist es ein dringendes Bedürfniss, die einzelnen von einander abweichenden Formen dieser Verhältnisse mit besonderen Bezeichnungen to belegen, da man fast für alle bisher den Ausdruck Parasitsmus gebrauchte. Wir müssen sämmtliche Fälle, wo überhaupt ein Auf- oder Ineinanderwohnen zweier verschiedener Species stattfindet, unter einen weitesten Begriff bringen, welcher die Rolle, die beide Wesen dabei spielen, noch nicht berücksichtigt, also auf das blosse Zusammenleben begründet ist, und wofür sich die Bezeichnung Symbiotismus empfehlen dürfte." (In the aftermath of the expanded knowledge that we have acquired in recent years about the coexistence of two distinct living things, there is an urgent need to bestow specific designations on the different individual forms of these relationships, since up till now one has used for almost all of the term "parasitism". We must bring all cases, wherever one of two different species lives on or in the other, under the broadest concept which does not consider the roles that the two living things play thereby (and thus is based on mere coexistence) and for which the designation symbiotismus i.e., might be suggested.)] In 1878, the German
Mycology Heinrich Anton de Bary defined it more broadly as "the living together of unlike organisms".
[ From p. 121: " ... des Zusammenlebens ungleichnamiger Organismen, der Symbiose, ... " ( ... of the living together of unlike organisms, symbiosis, ... )
]
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Reprinted in:
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French translation: See p. 301.
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See also:
Over time, the definition has varied among scientists. Some have argued that it should refer only to persistent mutualisms, while others have proposed that it should include all long-term biological interactions (i.e., mutualism,
commensalism, and
parasitism), but exclude brief interactions such as
predation.
In 1949, Edward Haskell proposed an integrative approach with a classification of "co-actions",[Haskell, E. F. (1949). A clarification of social science. Main Currents in Modern Thought 7: 45–51.] which was later adopted by biologists as "interactions".
Types
Obligate versus facultative
Relationships can be obligate, meaning that one or both of the symbionts entirely depend on each other for survival. For example, in
, which consist of fungal and
photosynthetic symbionts, the fungal partners cannot live on their own.
The algal or cyanobacterial symbionts in lichens, such as
Trentepohlia, can generally live independently, and their part of the relationship is therefore described as facultative (optional), or non-obligate.
When one of the participants in a symbiotic relationship is capable of photosynthesis, as with lichens, it is called photosymbiosis.
Ectosymbiosis versus endosymbiosis
Ectosymbiosis is any symbiotic relationship in which the symbiont lives on the body surface of the host, including the inner surface of the
digestion tract or the ducts of
.
Examples of this include
ectoparasites such as
lice;
commensalism ectosymbionts such as the
barnacles, which attach themselves to the jaw of
baleen whales; and mutualist ectosymbionts such as
cleaner fish.
Contrastingly, endosymbiosis is any symbiotic relationship in which one symbiont lives within the tissues of the other, either within the cells or extracellularly.
In endosymbiosis, the host cell lacks some of the nutrients which the endosymbiont provides. As a result, the host favors endosymbiont's growth processes within itself by producing some specialized cells. These cells affect the genetic composition of the host in order to regulate the increasing population of the endosymbionts and ensure that these genetic changes are passed onto the offspring via vertical transmission (heredity).
As the endosymbiont adapts to the host's lifestyle, the endosymbiont changes dramatically. There is a drastic reduction in its genome size, as many genes are lost during the process of metabolism, and DNA repair and recombination, while important genes participating in the DNA-to-RNA transcription, protein translation and DNA/RNA replication are retained. The decrease in genome size is due to loss of protein coding genes and not due to lessening of inter-genic regions or open reading frame (ORF) size. Species that are naturally evolving and contain reduced sizes of genes can be accounted for an increased number of noticeable differences between them, thereby leading to changes in their evolutionary rates. When endosymbiotic bacteria related with insects are passed on to the offspring strictly via vertical genetic transmission, intracellular bacteria go across many hurdles during the process, resulting in the decrease in effective population sizes, as compared to the free-living bacteria. The incapability of the endosymbiotic bacteria to reinstate their wild type phenotype via a recombination process is called Muller's ratchet phenomenon. Muller's ratchet phenomenon, together with less effective population sizes, leads to an accretion of deleterious in the non-essential genes of the intracellular bacteria.
Competition
Competition can be defined as an interaction between
or species, in which the fitness of one is lowered by the presence of another.
Competition can also occur between cells within the same organism which is why older cells are usually eliminated from tissues. This allows the organism to stay as healthy as possible by constantly eliminating old cells and making new ones.
supply of at least one resource (such as
food,
water, and territory) used by both usually facilitates this type of interaction, although the competition can also be for other resources.
[Begon, M.; Harper, J.L.; Townsend, C.R. 1996. Ecology: individuals, populations, and communities, Third Edition. Blackwell, Cambridge, Massachusetts. Chapters 5 "Intraspecific Competition" and 8 "Interspecific Competition"]
Amensalism
Amensalism is a non-symbiotic, asymmetric interaction where one species is harmed or killed by the other, and one is unaffected by the other.
[Toepfer, G. "Amensalism". In: BioConcepts. link .] There are two types of amensalism, competition and antagonism (or antibiosis). Competition is where a larger or stronger organism deprives a smaller or weaker one of a resource. Antagonism occurs when one organism is damaged or killed by another through a chemical secretion. An example of competition is a sapling growing under the shadow of a mature tree. The mature tree can rob the
sapling of necessary sunlight and, if the mature tree is very large, it can take up rainwater and deplete soil nutrients. Throughout the process, the mature tree is unaffected by the sapling. Indeed, if the sapling dies, the mature tree gains nutrients from the decaying sapling. An example of antagonism is
Juglans nigra (black walnut), secreting
juglone, a substance which destroys many herbaceous plants within its root zone.
[ Encyclopædia Britannica. " Amensalism (biology)". Retrieved September 30, 2014.]
The term amensalism is often used to describe strongly asymmetrical competitive interactions, such as between the Spanish Ibex and of the genus Timarcha which feed upon the same type of shrub. Whilst the presence of the weevil has almost no influence on food availability, the presence of ibex has an enormous detrimental effect on weevil numbers, as they consume significant quantities of plant matter and incidentally ingest the weevils upon it.
Commensalism
Commensalism describes a relationship between two living organisms where one benefits and the other is not significantly harmed or helped. It is derived from the English word , used of human social interaction. It derives from a medieval Latin word meaning sharing food, formed from
com- (with) and
mensa (table).
Commensal relationships may involve one organism using another for transportation (phoresy) or for housing (inquilinism), or it may also involve one organism using something another created, after its death (metabiosis). Examples of metabiosis are using gastropod shells to protect their bodies, and spiders building their webs on plants.
Mutualism
Mutualism or interspecies reciprocal altruism is a long-term relationship between individuals of different
species where both individuals benefit.
Mutualistic relationships may be either obligate for both species, obligate for one but facultative for the other, or facultative for both.
Many herbivores have mutualistic gut flora to help them digest plant matter, which is more difficult to digest than animal prey.["symbiosis." The Columbia Encyclopedia. New York: Columbia University Press, 2008. Credo Reference. Web. 17 September 2012.] Coral reefs result from mutualism between coral organisms and various algae living inside them.
An example of mutualism is the relationship between the ocellaris clownfish that dwell among the of Ritteri sea anemones. The territorial fish protects the anemone from anemone-eating fish, and in turn, the anemone stinging tentacles protect the clownfish from its . A special mucus on the clownfish protects it from the stinging tentacles.
A further example is the goby, a fish which sometimes lives together with a Caridea. The shrimp digs and cleans up a burrow in the sand in which both the shrimp and the goby fish live. The shrimp is almost blind, leaving it vulnerable to predators when outside its burrow. In case of danger, the goby touches the shrimp with its tail to warn it, and both quickly retreat into the burrow.
A spectacular example of obligate mutualism is the relationship between the siboglinid tube worms and symbiotic bacteria that live at hydrothermal vents and . The worm has no digestive tract and is wholly reliant on its internal symbionts for nutrition. The bacteria oxidize either hydrogen sulfide or methane, which the host supplies to them. These worms were discovered in the late 1980s at the hydrothermal vents near the Galapagos Islands and have since been found at deep-sea hydrothermal vents and cold seeps in all of the world's oceans.
Mutualism improves both organism's competitive ability and will outcompete organisms of the same species that lack the symbiont.
A facultative symbiosis is seen in encrusting bryozoans and hermit crabs. The bryozoan colony ( Acanthodesia commensale) develops a cirumrotatory growth and offers the crab ( Pseudopagurus granulimanus) a helicospiral-tubular extension of its living chamber that initially was situated within a gastropod shell.
Parasitism
In a parasitic relationship, the parasite benefits while the host is harmed.
Parasitism takes many forms, from
endoparasites that live within the host's body to
ectoparasites and parasitic castrators that live on its surface and
like mosquitoes that visit intermittently. Parasitism is an extremely successful mode of life; about 40% of all animal species are parasites, and the average mammal species is host to 4 nematodes, 2 cestodes, and 2 trematodes.
Mimicry
Mimicry is a form of symbiosis in which a species adopts distinct characteristics of another species to alter its relationship dynamic with the species being mimicked, to its own advantage. Among the many types of mimicry are Batesian and Müllerian, the first involving one-sided exploitation, the second providing mutual benefit.
Batesian mimicry is an exploitative three-party interaction where one species, the mimic, has evolved to mimic another, the model, to deceive a third, the dupe. In terms of signalling theory, the mimic and model have evolved to send a signal; the dupe has evolved to receive it from the model. This is to the advantage of the mimic but to the detriment of both the model, whose protective signals are effectively weakened, and of the dupe, which is deprived of an edible prey. For example, a wasp is a strongly defended model, which signals with its conspicuous black and yellow coloration that it is an unprofitable prey to predators such as birds which hunt by sight; many hoverflies are Batesian mimics of wasps, and any bird that avoids these hoverflies is a dupe.
[; Reprint: ] In contrast, Müllerian mimicry is mutually beneficial as all participants are both models and mimics.
For example, different species of
bumblebee mimic each other, with similar warning coloration in combinations of black, white, red, and yellow, and all of them benefit from the relationship.
Cleaning symbiosis
Cleaning symbiosis is an association between individuals of two species, where one (the cleaner) removes and eats parasites and other materials from the surface of the other (the client).
It is putatively mutually beneficial, but biologists have long debated whether it is mutual selfishness, or simply exploitative. Cleaning symbiosis is well known among marine fish, where some small species of
cleaner fish – notably
, but also species in other genera – are specialized to feed almost exclusively by cleaning larger fish and other marine animals.
In a supreme situation, the host species (fish or marine life) will display itself at a designated station deemed the "cleaning station".
Cleaner fish play an essential role in the reduction of parasitism on marine animals. Some shark species participate in cleaning symbiosis, where cleaner fish remove ectoparasites from the body of the shark.
Role in evolution
Symbiosis is increasingly recognized as an important selective force behind evolution;
many species have a long history of interdependent
co-evolution.
Although symbiosis was once discounted as an anecdotal evolutionary phenomenon, evidence is now overwhelming that obligate or facultative associations among microorganisms and between microorganisms and multicellular hosts had crucial consequences in many landmark events in evolution and in the generation of phenotypic diversity and complex phenotypes able to colonise new environments.[ Material was copied from this source, which is available under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.]
Mutualistic symbiosis can sometimes evolve from parasitism or commensalism, Fungi's relationship to plants in the form of mycelium evolved from parasitism and commensalism. Under certain conditions species of fungi previously in a state of mutualism can turn parasitic on weak or dying plants.
Hologenome development and evolution
Evolution originated from changes in development where variations within species are selected for or against because of the symbionts involved.
The hologenome theory relates to the holobiont and symbionts genome together as a whole.
Microbes live everywhere in and on every multicellular organism.
Many organisms rely on their symbionts in order to develop properly, this is known as co-development. In cases of co-development the symbionts send signals to their host which determine developmental processes. Co-development is commonly seen in both arthropods and vertebrates.
Symbiogenesis
One hypothesis for the origin of the nucleus in
eukaryotes (plants, animals, fungi, and
protists) is that it developed from a
symbiogenesis between bacteria and archaea.
It is hypothesized that the symbiosis originated when ancient archaea, similar to modern methanogenic archaea, invaded and lived within bacteria similar to modern myxobacteria, eventually forming the early nucleus. This theory is analogous to the accepted theory for the origin of eukaryotic mitochondria and chloroplasts, which are thought to have developed from a similar endosymbiotic relationship between proto-eukaryotes and aerobic bacteria.
Evidence for this includes the fact that
mitochondria and
divide independently of the cell, and that these organelles have their own genome.
["Symbiosis". Bloomsbury Guide to Human Thought. London: Bloomsbury Publishing, 1993. Credo Reference. Web. 17 September 2012.]
The biologist Lynn Margulis, famous for her work on endosymbiosis, contended that symbiosis is a major driving force behind evolution. She considered Charles Darwin's notion of evolution, driven by competition, to be incomplete and claimed that evolution is strongly based on co-operation, interaction, and mutual dependence among organisms. According to Margulis and her son Dorion Sagan, "Life did not take over the Earth by combat, but by social network."
Major examples of co-evolutionary relationships
Mycorrhiza
About 80% of
vascular plants worldwide form symbiotic relationships with fungi, in particular in arbuscular mycorrhizas.
The mutualism evolved due to the limitation of plant root capacity for absorbing soil nutrients, especially phosphate and nitrogen, which are crucial for plant growth.
Pollination
and the animals that
pollinate them have co-evolved. Many plants that are pollinated by
(in
entomophily),
, or
(in
ornithophily) have highly specialized flowers modified to promote pollination by a specific pollinator that is correspondingly adapted. The first flowering plants in the fossil record had relatively simple flowers. Adaptive
speciation quickly gave rise to many diverse groups of plants, and, at the same time, corresponding speciation occurred in certain insect groups. Some groups of plants developed nectar and large sticky pollen, while insects evolved more specialized morphologies to access and collect these rich food sources. In some taxa of plants and insects, the relationship has become dependent,
where the plant species can only be pollinated by one species of insect.
Acacia ants and acacias
The
acacia ant (
Pseudomyrmex ferruginea) is an obligate plant ant that protects at least five species of "Acacia" (
Vachellia) from preying insects and from other plants competing for sunlight, and the tree provides nourishment and shelter for the ant and its larvae.
Seed dispersal
Seed dispersal is the movement, spread or transport of
away from the parent plant. Plants have limited mobility and rely upon a variety of
to transport their propagules, including both
abiotic vectors such as the wind and living (
Biotic component) vectors like birds. In order to attract animals, these plants evolved a set of morphological characters such as
fruit colour, mass, and persistence correlated to particular seed dispersal agents.
For example, plants may evolve conspicuous fruit colours to attract avian frugivores, and birds may learn to associate such colours with a food resource.
Nitrogen fixation in legumes
Rhizobia are
bacteria that fix nitrogen inside the
of
such as
and
clover. To express genes for nitrogen fixation, rhizobia require a plant host; they cannot independently fix nitrogen.
Rhizobia infect the legume's roots and produce nodules where they fix nitrogen gas (N
2) from the atmosphere, turning it into a more readily useful form of nitrogen. From here, the nitrogen is exported and used for growth in the legume.
Lichens
A
lichen is a hybrid colony of
algae or
cyanobacteria living symbiotically among the
hypha of multiple species of
fungus and other micro-organisms embedded in the outer layer or cortex, in a mutualistic relationship. Lichens are able to flourish in harsh environments such as bare rocks.
See also
Notes
Sources
External links
