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The Sinosphere, also known as the Chinese cultural sphere, East Asian cultural sphere, or the Sinic world, encompasses multiple countries in East Asia and Southeast Asia that were historically heavily influenced by Chinese culture. The Sinosphere comprises Greater China, Japan, Korea, Vietnam and historically the Ryukyu Kingdom. Other definitions may include the regions of modern-day Mongolia and Singapore, due either to historical Chinese influence or a contemporary overseas Chinese population. The Sinosphere is different from the Sinophone world, which indicates regions where the Chinese language is spoken.
Imperial China was a major regional power in Eastern Asia and exerted influence on tributary states and neighboring states, including Japan, Korea, and Vietnam. These interactions brought ideological and cultural influences rooted in Confucianism, Buddhism, and Taoism. The four cultures were ruled by their respective emperors under similar imperial systems. Chinese inventions influenced, and were in turn influenced by, innovations of the other cultures in governance, philosophy, science, and the arts. (2025). 9781604979909, Cambria. ISBN 9781604979909 (2025). 9781604979879, Cambria. ISBN 9781604979879 Literary Chinese became the written lingua franca for bureaucracy and communications, and Chinese characters became locally adapted as kanji in Japan, hanja in Korea, and in Vietnam.
In late classical history, the literary importance of classical Chinese diminished as Japan, Korea, and Vietnam each adopted their own writing systems. Japan developed the katakana and hiragana scripts, Korea created hangul, and Vietnam developed (now rarely used in lieu of the modern Latin-based Vietnamese alphabet). Classical literature written in Chinese characters nonetheless remains an important legacy of Japanese, Korean, and Vietnamese cultures. In the 21st century, ideological and cultural influences of Taoism, Confucianism, and Buddhism remain visible in high culture and social doctrines.
Japanese historian (1919–1998), professor emeritus at the University of Tokyo, coined the term to refer to an East Asian cultural sphere distinct from the cultures of the West. According to Nishijima, this cultural sphere—which includes China, Japan, Korea, and Vietnam—shared the philosophy of Confucianism, the religion of Buddhism, and similar political and social structures stemming from a background of historical Classical Chinese scholars.Wang Hui, "'Modernity and 'Asia' in the Study of Chinese History," in Eckhardt Fuchs, Benedikt Stuchtey, eds., Across cultural borders: historiography in global perspective [1] (Rowman & Littlefield, 2002 ), p. 322. It has also been informally referred to as the "chopsticks sphere" due to perceived native use of these utensils across the region.
The CJK languages—Chinese, Japanese, Korean—each use cognate terms to translate English sphere:
Unlike with the other languages of the Sinosphere, the corresponding Vietnamese cognate khuyên 圈 is not used to mean 'sphere' or 'area'. Instead, vùng ('region', 'area') is used. The Chinese 東亞文化圈 is translated in Vietnamese as Vùng văn hóa Á Đông (塳文化亞東).
In the Ryukyuan languages, 圏 (ちん; ) is not used to mean 'sphere', 'area', or 'domain' and only appears in kammun texts written by Ryukyuans. Instead, 世 () is used to mean 'world' or 'sphere'. As such, and would be translated as (漢字一型ぬ世) and (東亜一型ぬ世), respectively.
Victor H. Mair discussed the origins of these 'culture sphere' terms.Victor Mair, Sinophone and Sinosphere, Language Log, 8 November 2012. The Chinese () dates to a 1941 translation for the German term Kulturkreis, ('culture circle, field'), which the Austrian ethnologists Fritz Graebner and Wilhelm Schmidt proposed. Japanese historian coined the expressions 'Chinese-character culture sphere' and 'Chinese culture sphere', which China later re-borrowed as loanwords. The Sinosphere may be taken to be synonymous to Ancient China and its descendant civilizations as well as the "Far Eastern civilizations" (the Mainland and the Japanese ones). In Toynbee's A Study of History (1934–1961), the Sinosphere is presented as among the major "units of study", along with the Western world, Islamic, Eastern Orthodox, and Indic civilizations.See the "family tree" of Toynbee's "civilizations" in any edition of Toynbee's work, or e.g. as Fig.1 on p.16 of: The Rhythms of History: A Universal Theory of Civilizations, By Stephen Blaha. Pingree-Hill Publishing, 2002. .
American sinologist and historian Edwin O. Reischauer also groups China, Japan, Korea, and Vietnam into a cultural sphere that he calls the "Sinic world", a group of centralized states that share a Confucian ethical philosophy. Reischauer states that this culture originated in northern China, and compares the relationship between northern China and East Asia to that of Greco-Roman civilization and Europe. The elites of East Asia were tied together through a common written language based on Chinese characters, much in the way that Latin functioned in Europe.
In his book The Clash of Civilizations, American political scientist Samuel P. Huntington considers the Sinic world as one of the modern (post–Cold War) civilizations. He notes that "all scholars recognize the existence of either a single distinct Chinese civilization dating back to at least 1500 B.C. and perhaps a thousand years earlier, or of two Chinese civilizations, one succeeding the other, in the early centuries of the Christian epoch". The Clash of Civilizations and the Remaking of World Order. (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1996; ), p. 45 Huntington's Sinic civilization includes China, North Korea, South Korea, Vietnam, and Chinese communities in Southeast Asia. Of the many civilizations that Huntington discusses, the Sinic world is the only one that is based on a cultural, rather than religious, identity. Huntington theorizes that in a post–Cold War world, humanity "identifies with cultural groups: tribes, ethnic groups, religious communities and at the broadest level, civilizations". One exception is Japan, which Huntington considers as a distinct civilization.
Rice is the staple food in all of East Asia and is a major focus of food security. People who have no rice are often seen as having no food. Moreover, in East Asian countries such as Japan (御飯; ), Korea (밥; bap), and Vietnam ( cơm; 𩚵 or 粓), the word for "cooked rice" can embody the meaning of food in general.
Popular terms associated with East Asian cuisine include Tapioca balls, kimchi, sushi, hot pot, tea, dim sum, ramen, as well as phở, sashimi, udon, and chả giò. (2015). 9781782385639, Berghahn Books, Incorporated. ISBN 9781782385639
Though they did not use Chinese for spoken communication, each country had its own tradition of reading texts aloud, the so-called Sino-Xenic pronunciations, which provide clues to the pronunciation of Middle Chinese. Chinese words with these pronunciations were also borrowed extensively by local vernaculars and today comprise over half their vocabularies. Vernacular or standard Chinese encompassing varieties of Chinese also developed alongside the use of Literary Chinese.
Books in Literary Chinese were widely distributed. By the 7th century and possibly earlier, woodblock printing had been developed in China. At first, it was used only to copy Buddhist scriptures, but later secular works were also printed. By the 13th century, metal movable type was used by government printers in Korea but seems to have not been extensively used in China, Vietnam, or Japan. At the same time, manuscript reproduction remained important until the late 19th century.
Japan's textual scholarship had Chinese origins, which made Japan one of the birthplaces of modern sinology."Given Japan's strong tradition of Chinese textual scholarship, encouraged further by visits by eminent Chinese scholars since the early 20th century, Japan has been one of the birthplaces of modern sinology outside China" Early China – A Social and Cultural History, page 11. Cambridge University Press.
The Four Books and Five Classics are the authoritative books of Confucianism, which were used to study for civil service examinations in China, Gwageo, and Vietnam.
The most important text in Taoism, the Tao Te Ching ("Book of the Way and Virtue", c. 300 BC), declares that the tao is the "source" of the universe, thus considered a creative principle, but not as a deity. Nature manifests itself spontaneously, without a higher intention, and it is up to humans to integrate, through "non-action" ( wu wei) and spontaneity ( zi ran), to its flow and rhythms, in order to achieve happiness and a long life.
Taoism is a combination of teachings from various sources; it manifests as a system that can be philosophical, religious, or ethical. The tradition can also be presented as a worldview and a way of life.
Buddhism in the Sinosphere is or derives from Mahayana Buddhism, a sect which is seen to be intertwined within Taoism and Confucianism. It advocates for altruism and compassion, as well as understanding and escaping from suffering in relation to karma. Vegetarianism or veganism is followed by more Monasticism or devout Buddhists of this sect, and even among lay Buddhists, as it leads to compassion for all living, sentient beings.
Elsewhere in East Asia, Japanese philosophy began to develop as indigenous Shinto beliefs fused with Buddhism, Confucianism, and other schools of Chinese philosophy. Similarly, in Korean philosophy, elements of Korean Shamanism were integrated into the neo-Confucianism imported from China. In Vietnam, neo-Confucianism, along with Taoism and Buddhism, were also developed into Vietnam's own Tam giáo, which together with Vietnamese folk religion shaped Vietnamese philosophy.
Christianity is the most popular religion in South Korea, followed by Buddhism. Significant Christian communities are also found in mainland China, Hong Kong, Macau, Taiwan, Singapore, Japan, and Vietnam. In recent years, various denominations of Christianity, mainly Protestantism and Catholicism, have gained popularity in these areas, due to its own version of spirituality and charitability. However, it is unlikely to supersede the more natively rooted Buddhism, except in places like South Korea where Protestantism is more popular. In Vietnam, Roman Catholicism is prominent, and early Christian missionaries played a historical role in romanizing the Vietnamese language prior to French Indochina.
Islam has been practiced in China since the 7th century CE.. It is the most popular religion in Xinjiang and has significant communities in Ningxia.
For Hinduism; see Hinduism in Vietnam, Hinduism in China.
No specific religious affiliation may also be practiced, and is often the most cited in several aforementioned countries. However, regardless of religious affiliations, most people in the Sinosphere are entwined with traces of Buddhism, Confucianism, and Taoism, or native religions and philosophies.
| + !Language family !Regions spoken !Major languages !Note !Ref | ||||
| Sino-Tibetan | China, Singapore, Myanmar, Christmas Island, Bhutan, northeast India, Kashmir, parts of Nepal | Varieties of Chinese, Tibetic languages, Burmese language | These are thought to have originated around the Yellow River, north of the Yangtze. | |
| Austronesian | Taiwan, East Timor, Brunei, Indonesia, Philippines, Singapore, Malaysia, Cocos (Keeling) Islands, Christmas Island, Madagascar, most of Oceania | Formosan languages, Indonesian, Filipino, Malagasy, Māori | ||
| Turkic languages | China, Russia, Turkmenistan, Kyrgyzstan, Uzbekistan, Kazakhstan, Azerbaijan, Iran, Cyprus, Turkey | Kazakh language, Kyrgyz language, Uyghur language, Tuvan language, Altai | ||
| Austroasiatic | Vietnam, Cambodia | Vietnamese, Khmer language | ||
| Kra-Dai | Thailand, Laos, parts of southern China | Zhuang language, Thai language, Lao language | ||
| Mongolic | Mongolia, China, Russia | Oirat language, Mongolian, Monguor language, Dongxiang, Buryat language | ||
| Tungusic | China, Russia | Evenki language, Manchu language, Xibe language | ||
| Koreanic | Korea | Korean language, Jeju language | ||
| Japonic | Japan | Japanese, Ryukyuan, Hachijo language | ||
| Ainu languages | Japan | Hokkaido Ainu | The only surviving Ainu language is Hokkaido Ainu. |
in CJKV languages. Shared vocabulary is coloured. From left to right: Vietnamese (Tiếng Việt; 㗂越) using the obsolete Chữ Nôm script Korean (한국어; Han'gugeo; 韓國語) Japanese (日本語; Nihongo; にほんご) Simplified Chinese (简体中文; Jiǎntǐ Zhōngwén) Traditional Chinese (繁體中文; Fántǐ Zhōngwén)]]
The core languages of the East Asian cultural sphere are predominantly Chinese, Japanese, Korean, and Vietnamese (CJKV), and their respective variants. These are well-documented to have historically used Chinese characters, with Japanese, Korean, and Vietnamese each having roughly 60% of their vocabulary derived from Chinese. There is a small set of minor languages that are comparable to the core East Asian languages, such as Zhuang languages and Hmong-Mien. They are often overlooked, since neither have their own country nor heavily export their culture, but Zhuang has been written in Hanzi-inspired characters called Sawndip for over 1,000 years. Hmong, while having supposedly lacked a writing system until modern history, is also suggested to have a similar percentage of Chinese loans to the core CJKV languages.
Due to the common usage of Chinese characters across East Asian nations, Chinese, Japanese, Korean, and Vietnamese people traditionally can engage in written communication using Literary Chinese without knowing other people's spoken language, a method called Brushtalk.
As a result, Japanese, Korean, and Vietnamese are also deemed Sino-Xenic languages that are highly influenced by ancient forms of Literary Chinese.
| + ! colspan="2" | Writing system !Regions used | |
| Logograms | Hanzi and its variants | China, Japan, Korea, Singapore, Vietnam*, Taiwan |
| Dongba symbols | China (used by the Naxi people ethnic minorities in China) | |
| Chữ Nôm | Vietnam*, China (Dongxing, Guangxi), still used by the Gin people today | |
| Syllabary | Kana | Japan |
| Yi script | China (used by the Yi people ethnic minorities in China) | |
| Semi-syllabary | Bopomofo | Taiwan, and historically mainland China. Used to aid in the learning of Hanzi, especially reading and writing, in elementary schools. On the mainland it is used only in the Xiandai Hanyu Cidian. |
| Alphabet | Latin script | Vietnam, China (used by some ethnic minorities in China, such as the Miao people); Taiwan (Tâi-lô Latin script for the Taiwanese Hokkien language) |
| Hangul | Korea, China (used by the Choson people ethnic minorities in northeastern China) | |
| Cyrillic | Mongolia (though there is a movement to switch back to Mongolian script) | |
| Mongolian | Mongolia*, China (Inner Mongolia) | |
| Abugida | Brahmic scripts of Indian origin | Singapore, China (Tibet, Xishuangbanna Dai Autonomous Prefecture) |
| Pollard script | China (used by the Hmong people ethnic minorities in China) | |
| Abjad | Uyghur Arabic alphabet | China (Xinjiang) |
| * Official usage historically. Currently used unofficially. | ||
Chinese characters are considered the common culture that unifies the languages and cultures of many East Asian nations. Today, mainland China, Malaysia, and Singapore use Simplified Chinese characters, whereas Taiwan, Hong Kong, and Macau use Traditional Chinese characters.
Historically, Japan, Korea, and Vietnam have also used Chinese characters. Today, they are still used in Japan and South Korea, albeit in different forms.
Japan still uses kanji but has also invented kana, inspired by the Chinese cursive script.
Korea used to write in hanja but has invented an alphabetic system called hangul that is nowadays the majority script. However, hanja is still a required subject in South Korea schools. Most names are also written in hanja. Hanja is also studied and used in academia, newspapers, and law—areas where a lot of scholarly terms and Sino-Korean loanwords are used and necessary to distinguish between otherwise ambiguous homonyms.
Vietnam used to write in chữ Hán (Chinese characters) in Classical Chinese texts (Hán văn). In the 8th century, the Vietnamese began inventing many of their own chữ Nôm characters. Since French colonization, they have switched to using a modified version of the Latin alphabet called chữ Quốc ngữ. Chinese characters had a long and great influence on Vietnamese history and literature, and thus still hold a special place in Vietnamese culture. In Vietnam (and North Korea), chữ Hán can be seen in temples, cemeteries, and monuments as well as serving as decorative motifs in art and design.
Zhuang people are similar to the Vietnamese in that they used to write in Sawgun (Chinese characters) and have invented many of their own characters, called Sawndip. Sawndip is still used informally and in traditional settings, but the Chinese government officially promotes the use of an alphabetical script, which it introduced in 1957, for the language.
Japan often features hierarchically organized companies, and Japanese work environments place a high value on interpersonal relationships.9789079646173, Hogeschool van Amsterdam. . ISBN 9789079646173 A leader of a Japanese company is typically valued on their ability to maintain social harmony, and to unify or bring together their employees, rather than simply being the top decision maker.
Korean businesses, adhering to Confucian values, are structured around a patriarchy family governed by filial piety (t=) between management and employees, where knowing one's place within the hierarchy, and showing respect for a person's age and status, are very important in Korean society. It is not uncommon for people in a Korean office to refer to others as their seniors () or their juniors (). A person's position within a company usually reflects their age, and juniors tend to listen to their seniors without pause. Koreans value maintaining a social harmonious environment that allows a worker's (mood or emotional feelings) to remain balanced.
Maintaining face is usually how business and social relationships work in East Asia, whereas aggressively patronising others, or criticising them publicly in front of others, tend to be the ways to lose business relationships. In Chinese business culture, there is a high value on nurturing relationships using the social concept of guanxi, which refers to a state of having personal trust and a solid relationship with someone, and can involve exchanging favours and have moral obligations to one another.
Vietnamese culture tends to be hierarchical by age and seniority. The Vietnamese prefer to work with those who they trust, extending this to business relations that often are maintained between peers and relatives. Women have an important role in Vietnamese culture (owing to their historical status as soldiers). Interpersonal relationships are also highly valued. Vietnamese businesspeople may take spoken word as fact. Maintaining face is highly important—anger or displaying temper will reduce trust. When there are disruptions in harmony, Vietnamese may use silence as a way of allowing any tension to simmer down.
Japanese economic growth stagnated in the 1990s; yet it currently remains the world's 3rd largest economy by nominal GDP. Presently, higher growth in the region has been experienced by China and the Tiger Cub Economies of Southeast Asia, particularly Vietnam.
The impact of the Vietnam War was devastating. Vietnam only started opening its economy through Đổi Mới reforms in 1986, and the US lifted its embargo on Vietnam only in 1995. Since then, the Vietnamese economy has been developing at a rapid pace.
Since the Chinese economic reform, China's economy has grown rapidly. In 2020, the country had become the 2nd and 1st-largest economy in the world respectively by nominal GDP and GDP (PPP).
Although Greater China, Japan, and Korea all have extensive links with the rest of ASEAN, Vietnam is the only Sinosphere country that is formally part of ASEAN as a country. Singapore, a highly developed economy, is also a part of ASEAN with a population that is significantly overseas Chinese. The economies of China and Japan are respectively the world's second- and third-largest economies by nominal GDP, and both are highly influential globally in terms of cultural exportation. South Korea was the 13th largest in 2022 by nominal GDP and has been highly influential as well, with the popularity of the Korean wave since the 1990s. North Korea was the 107th largest, and Vietnam the 35th largest, by nominal GDP in 2023.
Sinosphere countries are involved in various economic groups and initiatives, including:
China has had direct relations with its immediate neighbors since at least the first century BC. The Han dynasty conquered parts of northern Vietnam in 111 BC, and northern Korea in 109 BC (although Chinese influence there had begun earlier). Chinese rule and influence continued to impact Vietnam and Korea. China–Vietnam relations are tied to historical confrontations and the transfer of cultural and philosophical thoughts emanating from China to Vietnam. Although the countries are currently similar politically, their relations can also sometimes be fraught and unsound.
The various Baiyue peoples () were vaguely but historically connected to the southern Chinese and Vietnamese. In the past,
Vietnam and Korea had semi-official encounters when both countries' envoys met in China from the 16th to 19th centuries. Despite the geographical distance, the countries share parallels, such as colonial rule and political division. South Korea was involved with South Vietnam in the controversial Vietnam War. Today, Vietnam uniquely maintains good relations both with democratic states (like the US and South Korea) and with its historic communist allies (like China and North Korea). Although courteous, Vietnam's separate relations with North Korea and South Korea are made delicate by the tensions on the Korean peninsula. Vietnam was used as neutral ground for the 2019 North Korean–US summit.
China has influenced Japan for around two millennia. Historically, Japan emulated many cultural and philosophical thoughts from China, with many Japanese undertaking studies that came from China or via Korea. Culture, trade, and military confrontation has been a major focal point between the two as well, and relations can become very fraught.
Japan's links with Southeast Asia were mainly through maritime trade stemming from the 16th century.Owen, Norman G., Chandler, David. The Emergence of Modern Southeast Asia (p. 107). University, 2005. Japan's relations with Vietnam via China goes further back, to the 8th century.Nussbaum, Louis-Frédéric. (2005). "Abe no Nakamaro, " Japan Encyclopedia, p. 3. Although some residual grievances about Japan's historical colonization in Asia may remain, as well as existing political differences, the relation has mostly been of mutualism. However, instances of mistreatment, such as abuse towards Vietnamese laborers in Japan, has surfaced.
Korea and Japan have had extensive links in terms of culture, trade, political contact, and military confrontations. The history of Japan–Korea relations extends for over 15 centuries, with many ideas from mainland Asia flowing into Japan via Korea in historical times. Although geographically close, the two countries are culturally distinct from one another and may harbor contrasting military and historical viewpoints, where relations can turn fraught, especially in the context of Japanese colonization.
Korea and China relations are extensive and several millennia old. Much cultural and intellectual trade has transferred into Korea from China. The states have also partaken in several military confrontations, with parts of Korea being subsumed by Chinese rule since 109 BC. Much of the history between Korea and China focused on Northeast Asia, and played a role in transmitting knowledge to Japan. Korea has also shared relations with Manchuria and Northeast China, which themselves practiced a form of cultural assimilation with the Han Chinese Chinese. Modern relations between China and Korea can become fraught.
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