الأسد, meaning "lion", probably because of the qualities of valor and leadership.
The word is derived from the verb sāda, meaning to rule. The title seyyid/sayyid existed before Islam, however not in light of a specific descent, but as a
sign of respect.
The foundation of the title Sayyid is unclear. In fact the title Sayyid as a unified reference for descendants of
did not exist, according to Morimoto Kazuo, until the Mongol conquests.
This can be substantiated by historic records about Abdul Qadir Gilani and Bahauddin Naqshband, who did not refer to themselves with any title, despite their lineages to
. Sometimes the ruling community of a nation took this title to portray themselves as respected and honored, though they are not actually the descendants of
. This gives reasons to think that this title is founded later on. Morimoto refers to Mominov, who describes that the emergence of a community leader during the
) gave rise to the prominence of the title Sayyid.
[ This leader is most probably the Sunni Islam Shafiite scholar Mir Sayyid Ali Hamadani, who lived in this time, being known as a saint credited with the honorific titles "Amir-e-Kabir"(English language: "Grand Prince") and "Ali-e-Saani" (English language: "Second Ali").][Tazkare Khwanadane Hazrat Eshan (genealogy of the family of Hazrat Eshan)(by author and investigator:Muhammad Yasin Qasvari Naqshbandi company:Edara Talimat Naqshbandiyya Lahore)p. 58][Suraiya Gull in "Development of Sufi Kubraviya Order with Special Reference to Mir Saiyid Ali Hamadani", p. 8]
However, in Sunni Islam as practiced in the Ottoman Empire and Mughal Empire, a person descending from Muhammad (either maternally or paternally) can only claim the title of Sayyid by passing audits, whereupon exclusive rights, like paying lesser taxes, will be granted. These are mostly based on the claimant's demonstrated knowledge of the Quran and piousness (Arabic: Taqwa) under the assessment of a Naqib al-ashraf, also known as a Mir in Persian-speaking countries.[Tazkare Khanwade Hazrat Ishaan, p. 61, by Muhammad Yasin Qaswari Naqshbandi, published by Kooperatis Lahorin, Edare Talimat Naqshbandiyya][Damurdashi, ed. Muhammad, p. 43.][Imber and Kiyotaki, p. 198.] Notable examples of such a Naqib (plural: "Nuqaba") or Mirs (plural: "Miran"), were Hazrat Ishaan in the Mughal Empire and his descendant Sayyid Mir Fazlullah Agha in barakzai dynasty.
West Asia
Men belonging to the Sayyid families or tribes in the Arab world used to wear white or ivory coloured daggers like , or shibriyas to demarcate their nobility amongst other Arab men, although this custom has been restricted due to the local laws of the variously divided Arab countries.
Iraq
The Sayyid families in Iraq are so numerous that there are books written especially to list the families and connect their trees. Some of these families are: the Al-Talqani, Alyassiri, Al Aqeeqi, Al-Nasrullah, Al-Wahab, Al-Hashimi, Al-Barznji, Al-Quraishi, Al-Marashi, Al-Witry, Al-Obaidi, Al-Samarai, Al-Zaidi, Al-A'araji, Al-Baka, Al-Hasani, Al-Husseini, Al-Shahristani, Al-Qazwini Al-Qadri, Tabatabaei, Al- Alawi, Al-Ghawalib (Al-Ghalibi), Al-Musawi, Al-Awadi (not to be confused with the Al-Awadhi Huwala family), Al-Gharawi, Al-Sabzewari, Al-Shubber, Al-Hayali, Al-Kamaludeen, Al-Asadi and many others.[ Reclaiming Iraq: The 1920 Revolution and the Founding of the Modern State By Abbas Kadhim][
]
target="_blank" rel="nofollow"> البغداديون أخبارهم ومجالسهم By إبراهيم عبد الغني الدروبي - مطبعة الرابطة - Baghdad 1958 – مجلس آل الوتري (House of Al-Witry Council) - Page 78.[
target="_blank" rel="nofollow"> الكلية الطبية الملكية العراقية من خلال سيرة ذاتية، ج 1 (الطبعة الأولى). بيروت: المؤسسة العربية للدراسات والنشر. (هاشم الوتري - Hashim Al-Witry) Pages 180-181. ]
Iran
Sayyids (in Seyyed) are found in vast numbers in Iran. The Chief of "National Organization for Civil Registration" of Iran declared that more than 6 millions of Iranians are Sayyid.[ Six million people of Iran's population are Sadaat (Sayyid) / Tehran and Mazandaran (provinces) are the record owner of Sadaats in the country farsnews.ir1 February 2018] The majority of Sayyids migrated to Iran from Arab lands predominantly in the 15th to 17th centuries during the Safavid dynasty era. The Safavids transformed the religious landscape of Iran by imposing Twelver Shia Islam on the populace. Since most of the population embraced Sunni Islam, and an educated version of Shiism was scarce in Iran at the time, Ismail I imported a new group of Shia Ulama who predominantly were Sayyids from traditional Shiite centers of the Arabic-speaking lands, such as Jabal Amel (of southern Lebanon), Syria, Bahrain, and southern Iraq in order to create a state clergy. The Safavids offered them land and money in return for loyalty.[The failure of political Islam, by Olivier Roy, Carol Volk, pg.170][The Cambridge illustrated history of the Islamic world, by Francis Robinson, pg.72][The Middle East and Islamic world reader, by Marvin E. Gettleman, Stuart Schaar, pg.42][The Encyclopedia of world history: ancient, medieval, and modern ... by Peter N. Stearns, William Leonard Langer, pg.360] These scholars taught Twelver Shiism, made it accessible to the population, and energetically encouraged conversion to Shiism.
During the reign of Shah Abbas the Great, the Safavids also imported to Iran more Arab Shias, predominantly Sayyids, built religious institutions for them, including many (religious schools), and successfully persuaded them to participate in the government, which they had shunned in the past (following the Hidden imam doctrine).
Common Sayyid family surnames in Iran are Husseini, Al Mosawi, Kazmi, Razavi, Eshtehardian, Tabatabaei, Hashmi, Hassani, Jafari, Emami, Ahmadi, Zaidi, Imamzadeh, Sherazi, Kermani (kirmani), Shahidi, and Mahdavi.
Oman
In Oman, Sayyid is used solely as a royal title and not as a means of indicating descent from Muhammad. It is used by members of the ruling Al Said family who are not descended from Muhammad but instead from the Azd, a Qahtanite tribe. All Patrilineality descendants of Sultan Ahmad bin Said, the first ruler of Oman from the Al Said dynasty, are able to use the title of Sayyid or Sayyida.
Yemen
In Yemen the Sayyids are more generally known as sadah; they are also referred to as . In terms of religious practice they are Sunni Islam, Shia Islam, and Sufism. Sayyid families in Yemen include the Rassids, the Qasimids, the Mutawakkilites, the Hamideddins, some Al-Zaidi of Ma'rib, Sana'a, and Sa'dah, the Ba 'Alawi sadah families in Hadhramaut, Mufadhal of Sana'a, Al-Shammam of Sa'dah, the Sufyan of Juban, and the Al-Jaylani of Juban.[ A Tribal Order: Politics And Law in the Mountains of Yemen By Shelagh Weir][ From Religious Leaders to Ordinary Citizens The Changing Role of "Sadah" in Yemen By Mohammed Al-Asadi]
South Asia
In South Asia, Sayyids are mostly credited for preaching and consolidating the religion of Islam. They are predominantly descendants of leading saints of Shia Islam that migrated from Greater Iran to preach [Islam in Islamic Theology.[Mohammada in The Foundations of the Composite Culture in India, p. 170][Wani in Islam in Kashmir
Fourteenth to Sixteenth Century, p. 147]
Afghanistan
In the Islamic Republic of Afghanistan, the Sayyid have been recognized as an ethnic group. On March 15, 2019, President Ashraf Ghani decreed the inclusion of the "Sadat tribe" in the electronically registered national identity documents (Tazkira).
North India
The earliest migration of Sayyids from Afghanistan to North India took place in 1032 when Gazi Saiyyed Salar Sahu (general and brother-in-law of Sultan Mahmud of Ghazni) and his son Ghazi Saiyyad Salar Masud established their military headquarters at Satrikh ( from Zaidpur) in the Barabanki district of Uttar Pradesh. They are considered to be the first Muslim settlers in North India. In 1033 Ghazi Saiyyad Salar Masud was killed at the battle of Bahraich, the location of his mazar. Ghazi Saiyyad Salar Masud had no children. His parental uncle Syed Maroofuddin Ghazi and his family lived in Tijara until 1857 before they migrated to Bhopal. Syed Ahmed Rizvi Kashmiri and Khan Bahadur Aga Syed Hussain were both Rizvi Sayyids through Aaqa Meer Sayyid Hussain Qomi Rizvi, whose sacred shrine is in the Zainageer Village of Sopore, Kashmir. Iraqi Sayyids or Iraqi biradri in Eastern Uttar Pradesh are descendants of Iraqi Biradari who was the direct descendant of Muhammad's grandson Hussain ibn Ali and came to India from Iraq during the reign of Sultan Muhammad bin Tughlaq in 1330 A.D. He settled with his seven sons and forty champions in Ghazipur (U.P.) as some of them (i.e., Syed Abu Bakr in Nonahra, Ghazipur) converted to Sunni Islam in the reign of Sultan Ibrahim Lodhi around 1517. His Shia descendants are now known as Sayyids of Ghazipur.
Sayyids of Syed nagli, or Said Nagli, or the Baquari Syeds had migrated from Termez (Present day Uzbekistan)
Perhaps the most important figure in the history of the Sayyid in Uttar Pradesh was Sayyid Basrullah Shustari, who moved from Mashad in Iran in 1549 and joined the court of the Mughal Empire Emperor Akbar. Akbar appointed Shustari as his chief justice, who used his position to strengthen the status of the various Sayyid families. They were preferred in administrative posts and formed a privileged elite. When the Mughal Empire disintegrated, the Sayyid played an important role in the turbulent politics of the time. The new British colonial authorities that replaced the Mughal Empire after the Battle of Buxar made a pragmatic decision to work with the various Sayyid . Several Sayyid in Awadh were substantial landowners under the British colonial regime, and many other Sayyid contributed to state administration.[People of India Uttar Pradesh Volume XLII Part Three, edited by A Hasan & J C Das] After the abolition of the system, many Sayyid zamindars (e.g. that of Ghazipur) had to leave their homes.
Uttar Pradesh
The ancestor of the Barha family, Sayyid Abu'l Farah Al Hussaini Al Wasti, left his original home in Wasit, Iraq, with his twelve sons at the end of the 13th century and migrated to India, where he obtained four villages in Sirhind-Fategarh. By the 16th century Abu'l Farah's descendants had taken over Bārha villages in Muzaffarnagar.[ The Encyclopaedia of Islam: Supplement : Fascicules 1–2 , Clifford Edmund Bosworth, Brill Archive, 1980]
The Sayyeds of Abdullapur Meerut are descendants of great saint Jalaluddin Surkh-Posh Bukhari. They had a large Jagirdara consisting of 52 villages.Abdullapur named after Syed Mir Abdulla Naqvi Al Bukhari, he built Kot Fort of this place in the 16th century, it was his main residence.
The Sayyids of Safipur are HUSSAINI Sayyids They are descendants of great saint Makhdoom Shah Ala Jajmawi Zanjani(He Was born in Zanjan (1175). his father was first migrated from Zanjan, Iran to India his name was qazi siraj uddin hasan zanjani . He was the chief qazi of Zanjan Iran.
The Sayyids of Bilgram are Hussaini Sayyids, who first migrated from Wasit, Iraq, in the 13th century.[ Essays in Arabic Literary Biography: 1350–1850 , Roger M. A. Allen, Joseph Edmund Lowry, Terri DeYoung, Devin J. Stewart, Otto Harrassowitz Verlag, 30 December 2009] Their ancestor, Syed Mohammad Sughra, a Zaidi Sayyid of Iraq, arrived in India during the rule of Sultan Iltutmish. In 1217–18 the family conquered and settled in Bilgram.[ Islam in South Asia in Practice , Barbara D. Metcalf, Princeton University Press, 8 September 2009]
A notable Sufi that belonged to a Sayyid family was Syed Salar Masud, from whom many of the Sayyid families of Awadh claim their lineage.
Sadaat also found in Kannauj trace their lineage from Husayn through Ali al-Hadi, a branch of Naqvi Bukhari. Famous Pir Syed Mehboob Alam Naqvi-ul Bukhari Al-Maroof Shah Jewna son of great warrior Syed Sadaruddin Shah Kabeer Naqvi (saint and also chief advisor) of Sikandar Lodi was also born in Kannauj and spent 66yrs of his life in kannauj later moved to Shah Jeewna. Makhdoom Jahaniya Mosque is still present in Shikana, Kannauj.[ King Wajid Ali Shah of Awadh, Volume 1 by Mirza Ali Azhar, Royal Book Co., 1982]
Bihar
There are different families of syeds in Bihar who belong to direct descendants of Imam Hasan and Imam Hussain. Mostly there are Hussaini (Rizvi, Zaidi, Baqri) along with Hasani (Malik, Quadri or Geelani). Sadaat are settle in different part of bihar including shia and sunni sects. They are mostly migrated to bihar from Iraq and Iran.
Syed Yaqub Halabi also known as Syed Yaqub Baghdadi, a Hanafi Qazi from MadrassaAl Nizamiyya, originally from Halab (Aleppo) who travelled to India with Muhammad of Ghor after the Second Battle of Tarain. He was an eleventh generational descendant of Ali ibn Husayn Zayn al-Abidin through his son Abd Allah Al Bahr Al Ilm.
Sharafuddin Maneri
Zaidi Sadaat of Bihar are the descendants of Sufi saint Syed Ahmad Jajneri and Syed Mohammed Jajneri. Syed Ahmad Jajneri migrated to India from Baghdad during the reign of Muhammad of Ghor and later migrated to Bihar. He was the direct descendant of Zayd ibn Ali who was the grandson of Husayn ibn Ali and therefore his descendants are called Husseini(Zaidi Syed)Sadaat. His descendants are mostly settled in Bihar Sharif, Munger, Sheikhpura and Jamui region of Bihar.
Most prominent personalities of Sadaat of Bihar were from Desna, Bihar. For Example Syed Mohammed Saeed Raza, Abdul Qavi Desnavi[ Suleman Nadvi. |URL=] Desna's library, established in 1892, had thousands of old Persian language and Urdu manuscripts. After the partition of India, during uncertain times of mass emigration to Pakistan, the books were donated to Khuda Bakhsh Khan Library in Patna, where a Desna section was established to house these treasures.
Kerala
In Kerala, a number of Sayyid families (Qabila) are found. Most of them migrated from Arabian peninsula (Yemen's Hadramout Region) and Central Asian region in the Middle Ages and settled under the patronage of . Famous among are Jifris, Bukharis and Ba-Alawis.
Sayyids occupy various positions as jurists (qazi), scholars (ulama') and leaders (umara'). The state leaders of Indian Union Muslim League and Samastha are mostly chosen from Panakkad Thangal Family. A religious educational institute named 'Sadath Academy' was established in Kerala exclusively for Sayyid students.
Genetic studies and controversy of self-proclaimed Indian Sayyids
The authors of the study, the of self-identified Syeds from the Indian sub-continent are no less diverse than those non-Syeds from the same regions , suggested that Syed status showed evidence of elevated Arab ancestry but not of a recent common Patrilineality origin.[ Y chromosomes of self-identified Syeds from the Indian subcontinent show evidence of elevated Arab ancestry but not of a recent common patrilineal origin Elise M. S. Belle & Saima Shah & Tudor Parfitt & Mark G. Thomas; Received: 11 March 2010 / Accepted: 28 May 2010 / Published online: 29 June 2010]
In North India, Uttar Pradesh & Bihar 0.2 per cent of the Sunni Muslim belong to haplogroup J1, which, given its absence in Indian non-Muslims is likely of exogenous Middle Eastern origin. There are 18 per cent belonging mainly to haplogroup J2 and another 11 per cent belong to haplogroup J1, which both represent Middle Eastern lineages, but may not hint exact descent from Muhammad. J1 is exclusively Near Eastern. The results for Sayyids showed minor but still detectable levels of gene flow primarily from Iran, rather than directly from the Arabian peninsula.
The paper, "Y chromosomes of self-identified Syeds from the Indian subcontinent ", by Elise M. S. Belle, Saima Shah, Tudor Parfitt, and Mark G. Thomas showed that "self-identified Syeds had no less genetic diversity than those non-Syeds from the same regions, suggesting that there is no biological basis to the belief that self-identified Syeds in this part of the world share a recent common ancestry. However, self-identified men belonging to the IHL (Syeds, Hashemites, Quraysh and Ansari) show greater genetic affinity to Arab populations—despite the geographic distance, than other Indian populations.[ Y chromosomes of self-identified Syeds from the Indian subcontinent show evidence of elevated Arab ancestry but not of a recent common patrilineal origin. , Elise M. S. Belle & Saima Shah & Tudor Parfitt & Mark G. Thomas; Received: 11 March 2010 / Accepted: 28 May 2010 / Published online: 29 June 2010]
Southeast Asia
Most of the Alawi Sayyids who moved to Southeast Asia were descendants of Ali ibn Husayn Zayn al-Abidin, especially of Ba 'Alawi sada, many of which were descendants of migrants from Hadhramaut. Even though they are only "alleged" descendants of Husayn, it is uncommon for the female Sayyids to be called Sayyidah; they are more commonly called Sharifah. Most of them live in Brunei, Indonesia, Malaysia, Singapore, Moro Province in Philippines, Pattani Province and Cambodia. Many of the royal families of this region such as the previous royal families of the Philippines (Sultanate of Sulu, Sultanate of Maguindanao, Confederation of Sultanates of Ranao), Country of Singapore (Sultanate of Singapore House of Bendahara), Country of Malaysia (Sultanates of Johor House of Temenggong, Sultanates of Pahang and Sultanates of Terengganu House of Bendahara, Kingdom of Perlis House of Jamalullail), Country of Indonesia (Sultanates of Siak, Sultanates of Pontianak, Sultanates of Gowa, some Javanese Sultanates), Country of Brunei (Sultanates of Brunei House of Bolkiah) are also Sayyids, especially of Ba'Alawi.[ ‘Strangers’ and ‘stranger-kings’: The sayyid in eighteenth-century maritime Southeast Asia By Jeyamalar Kathirithamby-Wells][ Sayyids and Sharifs in Muslim Society: The Living Links to the Prophet By Kazuo Morimoto][Southeast Asia (3 Volumes): A Historical Encyclopedia from Angkor Wat to East Timor By Keat Gin Ooi]
Some common surnames of these Sayyids are Al-Saqqaf (or As-Saqqaf, Assegaf, Assegaff, Alsagoff family), Shihab (or Shahab), Al-idaroos (or Al-Aydrus, Al Aidrus, Alaydrus, House of Bendahara, House of Temenggong), Al-Habsyi (or Al-Habshi), Al-Kaff, Al-Aththos (or Al-Attas, Alattas, Alattos), Al-Haddad Alhaddad), Al-Jufri (or Al-Jifri), Al-Muhdhar, Al-Shaikh Abubakar, Al-Qadri, Al-Munawwar, Al-Akbar Al-Hasani (or Al Akbar Al Hasani, Al-Bolkiah, House of Bolkiah), Al-Jamalullail (or Al Jamalullail, Djamalullail, House of Jamalullail).["Imam Abdallah ibn Alawi al-Haddad". Notes on Islam. April 30, 2012. Retrieved September 18, 2014.]
Tesayyud
In the Ottoman Empire, tax breaks for "the Ahl al-Bayt" encouraged many people to buy certificates of descent or forge genealogies; the phenomenon of teseyyüd – falsely claiming noble ancestry – spread across ethnic, class, and religious boundaries. In the 17th century, an Ottoman bureaucrat estimated that there were 300,000 impostors. In 18th-century Anatolia, nearly all upper-class urban people claimed descent from Muhammad.
Royal descendants of Muhammad
Descendants of Muhammad are present in many royal families today and are predominantly of Sunni Islam.
Libyan royal family
The Sayyids in Libya are Sunni, including the former royal family, which is Idrisid dynasty (also known as the Senussi family).
Sharifs of Mecca
Jordan
The Hashemites of Jordan also claims descent from Muhammad in the line of the Sharifs of Mecca, that were set by the Fatimids and recognized by the Ottoman Turks, tracing their lineage back to Imam Hasan ibn Ali.Kamal S. Salibi (1993). 185043610X, I.B. Tauris. 185043610X
[Karey in Oxford AQA History : A Level and AS Component 2: International Relations and Global Conflict C1890-1941, p. 113]
Brunei
The House of Bolkiah claims descent from Imam Hasan ibn Ali through Sharif Ali, the 3rd Sultan of Brunei, who succeeded his father in law as Sultan in virtue of his descent from Muhammad. Sharif Ali formerly served as Mecca and belonged to the Sharif, migrating to Brunei for missionary purposes.
Moroccan royal family
The Alaouite Royal family of Morocco also claims descent from Muhammad in the line of Imam Hasan ibn Ali. Their patriarch was Sharif ibn Ali, who founded the dynasty.
Sulu, Lanao, and Maguindanao royal family
The Sultanates of Sulu, Lanao, and Maguindanao hold a significant place in Philippine history, rooted deeply in both cultural heritage and religious identity. It is claimed that these Sultanates trace their lineage to the Prophet Muhammad, upholding the tenets of Sunni Ash'ari in Aqeeda (theological creed) and adhering to the Shafi'i school of thought in Fiqh (jurisprudence). Central to their spiritual and intellectual tradition are the teachings of Sufi missionaries from the Ba 'Alawi sada, whose influence has played a pivotal role in shaping the religious landscape of the region.
The majority of Muslims in the Philippines adhere to the Sunni Ash'ari creed and follow the Shafi'i school of jurisprudence, reflecting the enduring influence of these traditions within the Sultanates and beyond. Furthermore, there exists a profound respect for, and in many cases, the practice of Sufism among Filipino Muslims. Sufism, with its emphasis on spiritual purification and the pursuit of inner knowledge, resonates deeply with the cultural and religious fabric of the Filipino Muslim community.
Other indication of descent
In addition to the sayyid title, descendants of Muhammad through Twelve Imams in Arabic, Persian language and Urdu may obtain the following :
|
|
| Alawids العلوی
al-Hashimi الهاشمي | Alavii, Alavi, or Alawi| Alvi or Hashimi or Awan or Hashemi
|
| al-Hasani الحسني al-Bolkiah البلقية al-Alawi العلوی
al-Hashimi الهاشمي | Hashmi هاشمی
Hassani حسنى | Hashmi or
Hassani
Noshahi نوشاہی |
| al-Hussaini الحسيني
Ba 'Alawi ال باعلوي | Hussaini Hashemi or Shah |
| Abidi or Abdi |
| Baqri |
| Jafri or Jafry or Jaffery shamsi |
| al-Zaydi الزيدي | Zaydi زیدی| Zaidi
|
| Kazmi |
| Rizvi or Rizavi |
| Taqvi |
| Naqvi or Bhaakri/Bukhari |
Hasan al-Askari[Tazkare Khwanadane Hazrat Eshan(genealogy of the family of Hazrat Eshan)(by author and investigator: Muhammad bin Nusayr company:Edara Talimat Naqshbandiyya Lahore)p. 63][
Shajara-e-nasab lineages of descendants of Imam Hasan al-Askari r.a.] | Dakik or Hazrat Ishaan |
Note: (For non-Arabic speakers) When transliterating Arabic words into English there are two approaches.
-
1. The user may transliterate the word letter for letter (e.g., "الزيدي" becomes "a-l-z-ai-d-i").
-
2. The user may transcribe the pronunciation of the word (e.g., "الزيدي" becomes "a-zz-ai-d-i"); in Arabic grammar, some consonants ( n, r, s, sh, t and z) cancel the l (ل) from the word "the" al (ال) (see sun and moon letters). When the user sees the prefixes an, ar, as, ash, at, az, etc... this means the word is the transcription of the pronunciation.
-
An i, wi (Arabic), or i, vi (Persian) ending could perhaps be translated by the English suffixes -ite or -ian. The suffix transforms a personal name or place name into the name of a group of people connected by lineage or place of birth. Hence Ahmad al-Hassani could be translated as Ahmad, the descendant of Hassan, and Ahmad al-Manami as Ahmad from the city of Manama. For further explanation, see .
1Also, El-Husseini, Al-Husseini, Husseini, and Hussaini.
2Those who use the term Sayyid for all descendants of Ali ibn Abi Talib regard Alawites or Alavis as Sayyids. However, Allawis are not descendants of Muhammad, as they are descended from the children of Ali and the women he married after the death of Fatima, such as Umm ul-Banin (Fatima bint Hizam). Those who limit the term Sayyid to descendants of Muhammad through Fatima, Alawites are the same how Sayyids. |
See also
Notes
Sources
