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According to the Greek writer Ctesias, Sardanapalus ( ; ), sometimes spelled Sardanapallus (Σαρδανάπαλλος), was the last king of Assyria, although in fact Aššur-uballiṭ II (612–605 BC) holds that distinction.
Ctesias' book Persica is lost, but we know of its contents by later compilations and from the work of Diodorus (II.27). In this account, Sardanapalus, supposed to have lived in the 7th century BC, is portrayed as a decadent figure who spends his life in self-indulgence and dies in an orgy of destruction. The legendary decadence of Sardanapalus later became a theme in literature and art, especially in the Romantic era.
The name Sardanapalus is probably a corruption of AshurbanipalContext of Scripture, pg I:310 § 1.99 Richard C Steiner ( Aššur-bāni-apli > Sar-dan-ápalos), an Assyrian emperor, but Sardanapalus as described by Diodorus bears little relationship with what is known of that king, who in fact was a militarily powerful, highly efficient and scholarly ruler, presiding over the largest empire the world had yet seen.
Sardanapalus returned to Nineveh to defend his capital, while his army was placed under the command of his brother-in-law, who was soon defeated and killed. Having sent his family to safety, Sardanapalus prepared to hold Nineveh. He managed to withstand a long siege, but eventually heavy rains caused the Tigris to overflow, leading to the collapse of one of the defensive walls. To avoid falling into the hands of his enemies, Sardanapalus had a huge funeral pyre created for himself on which were piled "all his gold, silver and royal apparel". He had his eunuchs and concubines boxed in inside the pyre, burning himself and them to death.The historical library of Diodorus the Sicilian: in fifteen books. To which are added the fragments of Diodorus, and those published by H. Valesius, I. Rhodomannus, and F. Ursinus, Volume 1, p. 118-23
There is no evidence from Mesopotamia that either Ashurbanipal or Shamash-shum-ukin led hedonistic lifestyles, were homosexual or transvestites. Both appear to have been strong, disciplined, serious and ambitious rulers, and Ashurbanipal was known to be a literate and scholarly king with an interest in mathematics, astronomy, astrology, history, zoology and botany.Georges Roux - Ancient Iraq
It was Shamash-shum-ukin in Babylon who was besieged and defeated, and his allies crushed, not Ashurbanipal in Nineveh. After the former's defeat in 648 BC, an inscription of Ashurbanipal's records that "they threw down Shamash-shum-ukkin, enemy brother who attacked me, into the raging conflagration".Sarah Melville, tr., in Mark William Chavalas, ed. The Ancient Near East: historical sources in translation 2006:366:
The actual Fall of Nineveh occurred in 612 BC after Assyria had been greatly weakened by a bitter series of internal civil wars between rival claimants to the throne. Its former subjects took advantage of these events and freed themselves from the Assyrian yoke. Assyria was attacked in 616 BC by allied forces of Medes, Scythians, Babylonians, , , Cimmerians and Elamites. Nineveh was besieged and sacked in 612 BC. Ashurbanipal's son Sin-shar-ishkun (the third of four kings to rule after Ashurbanipal) was then ruling as king of Assyria. He was probably killed defending his city in the sack, though records are fragmentary. Ashur-uballit II succeeded him as the last king of an independent Assyria, ruling from Harran, the last capital of Assyria until 605 BC. Assyria survived as an occupied province and geo-political entity until it was dissolved after the Arab people Islamic conquest of Mesopotamia in the 7th century AD. The area is still inhabited by a now Christians and still Eastern Aramaic-speaking indigenous Assyrian people minority today.
Historically, there is no record of any Assyrian king dying or being buried in Cilicia.
In the introductory pages of Book I of Aristotle's Nicomachean Ethics, those who (erroneously, according to Aristotle) equate the good life with the life of brute pleasure are likened to Sardanapalus.
The death of Sardanapalus was the subject of a Romanticism painting by the 19th-century French painter Eugène Delacroix, The Death of Sardanapalus, which was itself based on the 1821 play Sardanapalus by Lord Byron, which in turn was based on Diodorus.
In Act 4 of Goethe's Faust II, Faust responds with the exclamation "Sardanapalus!" to Mephistopheles' guess of what it is that Faust strives after. Mephistopheles offers up the life of pleasure as Faust's life's goal. E. H. Coleridge, in his notes on the works of Byron, states, "It is hardly necessary to remind the modern reader that the Sardanapalus of history is an unverified if not an unverifiable personage... The character which Ctesias depicted or invented, an effeminate debauchee, sunk in luxury and sloth, who at the last was driven to take up arms, and, after a prolonged but ineffectual resistance, avoided capture by suicide, cannot be identified".
Sardanapalus is a hero in The Fall of Nineveh by Edwin Atherstone. He is portrayed as a criminal who ordered one hundred prisoners of war to be executed and burned his palace with all his concubines inside.
Hector Berlioz, the 19th-century French Romantic composer, wrote a very early cantata, Sardanapale on the subject of the death of Sardanapalus. Written during the July Revolution of 1830, it was his fourth and finally successful attempt in the Prix de Rome competition, run by the Paris Conservatoire. Only a fragment of the score survives.
Franz Liszt began an (incomplete) opera on the subject in 1850, Sardanapalo, Act 1 of which had its world premiere only in 2018, almost a century and a half after the composer's death.
Henry David Thoreau, writes in Walden, "It is the luxurious and dissipated who set the fashions which the herd so diligently follow. The traveller who stops at the best houses, so called, soon discovers this, for the publicans presume him to be a Sardanapalus, and if he resigned himself to their tender mercies he would soon be completely emasculated."
In A Tale of Two Cities, Charles Dickens describes the French Court, and by extension the French Monarchy and upper class: "It had never been a good eye to see with--had long had the mote in it of Lucifer's pride, Sardanapalus's luxury, and a mole's blindness...".
In Dante's Paradiso, XV.107-108, "Sardanapalus had not yet come to show to what use bedrooms can be put." (That is, society had not reached such extremes of decadence.)
In Maxim Gorky's 1902 play, The Lower Depths, Satine calls The Actor "Sardanapalus", when asking him to have a drink, in reference to his decadence.
The legend of Sardanapulus was very loosely adapted as the basis of the 1962 Italian Sword-and-sandal film Le sette folgori di Assur (English title: War Gods of Babylon). The film anachronistically portrays as contemporaries several figures who historically lived hundreds of years apart.
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