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The Samnites () were an ancient Italic peoples who lived in Samnium, which is located in modern inland Abruzzo, Molise, and Campania in south-central Italy. An Oscan language Osci, who originated as an offshoot of the Sabines, they formed a confederation consisting of four tribes: the Hirpini, Caudini, Caraceni, and Pentri. Ancient Greek historians considered the Umbri as the ancestors of the Samnites.Strabo, Geography, book 4, 7 BCE, p. 465, Alexandria, Their migration was in a southward direction, according to the rite of ver sacrum.
Although allied together against the Gauls in 354 BC, they later became enemies of the Roman Republic and fought them in a series of Samnite Wars. Despite an overwhelming victory at the Battle of the Caudine Forks (321 BC), the Samnites were subjugated in 290 BC. Although severely weakened, the Samnites would still side against the Romans, first in the Pyrrhic War and then with Hannibal in the Second Punic War. They also fought in the Social War and later in Sulla's civil war as allies of the Roman consuls Papirius Carbo and Gaius Marius against Sulla, who defeated them and their leader Pontius Telesinus at the Battle of the Colline Gate (82 BC). Afterward, they were assimilated by the Romans and ceased to exist as a distinct people.
The Samnites had an economy focused upon livestock and agriculture. Samnite agriculture was highly advanced for its time, and they practiced transhumance. Aside from relying on agriculture, the Samnites exported goods such as ceramics, bronze, iron, olives, wool, pottery, and . Their Trade extended across Campania, Latium, Apulia, and Magna Graecia.
Samnite society was stratified into cantons. Each city was a vicus. Many vici were grouped into a pagus, and many pagi were grouped into a touto. There were four Samnite touto, one for each of the Samnite tribes. Aside from this system of government, a few Samnite cities had political entities similar to a Roman Senate. It was rare, although possible, for the Samnites to unify under a coalition; normally the tribes and cities functioned independently from one another.
Samnite religion worshipped both spirits called Numen and gods and goddesses. The Samnites honored their gods by Sacrifice live and using . Superstition was prominent in the Samnite religion. It was believed that magical chants could influence reality, that Talisman could protect people, and that could Precognition. Samnite would manage religious festivals and they could bind people to oaths. Sanctuaries were a major part of the Samnite religion. These might have been used to benefit from trade networks, may have marked the border between territories, and may have been intertwined with government. Samnite sanctuaries may have also been used to reinforce group identity.
Safin would go through a series of changes culminating in Safinim, the Oscan word for Samnium, meaning "cult place of the Safin people ." This became the word for the Samnite people, Safineis.Sonnenschein, E. A. " Sabellus: Sabine or Samnite?" The Classical Review, vol. 11, no. 7, Cambridge University Press, 1897, pp. 339–340, . as well as other words in Greek such as Saini, Saineis, Samnītēs, Sabellī, and Saunìtai. These terms likely originated in the 5th century BC and derive from saunion, the Greek word for javelin.Farney, Gary D.; Bradley, Guy (2017-11-20). The Peoples of Ancient Italy. Walter de Gruyter GmbH & Co KG. pp. 70–71, 420 .
At some point in prehistory, a population speaking a common language extended over both Samnium and Umbria. Salmon conjectures that it was common Italic and puts forward a date of 600 BC, after which the common language began to separate into dialects. This date does not necessarily correspond to any historical or archaeological evidence; developing a synthetic view of the ethnology of proto-historic Italy is an incomplete and ongoing task.
Linguist Julius Pokorny carries the etymology somewhat further back. Conjecturing that the -a- was altered from an -o- during some prehistoric residence in Illyria, he derives the names from an o-grade extension * swo-bho- of an extended e-grade * swe-bho- of the possessive adjective, * s(e)we-, of the reflexive pronoun, * se-, "oneself" (the source of English self). The result is a set of Indo-European tribal names (if not the endonym of the Indo-Europeans): Germanic Suebi and Semnones, Suiones as well as Swedes; Celtic Senones; Slavic Serbs and Sorbs; Italic Sabelli, Sabini, etc., as well as a large number of kinship terms.
After the Etruscans abandoned Campania in the 5th century, the Samnites conquered the region. Cities like Pompeii and Herculaneum were conquered.Sparavigna, Amelia Carolina, "The Town Planning of Pompeii and Herculaneum Having Streets Aligned Along Sunrise on Summer Solstice" (June 30, 2016). p. 3. It is unclear what Samnite cities took part in the campaign, or why. They could have wanted its Soil fertility, or to alleviate overpopulation. This theory relies on the Samnites having a poor agricultural industry, which is contradicted by other evidence. Alternatively, the Samnites could have wanted access to the Volturno and other . Once Greek hegemony in Italy waned, the Samnites invaded and conquered much of their former land.Rotter, Timothy W. (1990). Roman Italy. University of California Press. pp. 34–38, 42–47, 50, 53, 68, 74, 76–77 . Cities of Vesuvius: Pompeii & Herculaneum. Anonymous Prod. Sheppard Phil. Phil Sheppard Productions, 2008. "The Etruscans and Greeks dominated until the Samnites took possession of most of this area, uniting Campania. Pompeii became more Italic in character, relinquishing the last traces of Hellenistic influence. In 80 BC, after a war against Rome, the Samnites surrendered Pompeii, and from then on its history was linked to Rome." They conquered cities like Cumae, only failing to take Naples." Pompeii exhibition: a timeline of Pompeii and Herculaneum; A brief history of the cities of Pompeii and Herculaneum, which feature in a major new British Museum exhibition in London." Telegraph Online, 3 Mar. 2013. Gale In Context: Biography, "Samnites – a people from south-central Italy who spoke Oscan – invade the area." In the ensuing centuries, they would wage more war against the Campanians, , Epirote Greek, and other Latin communities.Roselaar, Saskia T. (2012). Processes of Integration and Identity Formation in the Roman Republic. Brill Publishers. pp. 17, 189–196, 221–223, 242–244, 252 .
There are two accounts of the cause of the Second Samnite War. Possibly, Rome declared war due to a Samnite alliance with the Vestini and wars against Fregellae and Paleopolis. Additionally, the Romans wished to use the economic prosperity of the city of Venafrum for their own benefit. Conflict may have also emerged because the Samnites desired to solidify their hold over crucial economic positions. After the Roman defeat at the Battle of the Caudine Forks both sides agreed to an armistice. Fighting resumed in 326 BC. The war ended after a Roman campaign into Apulia and Samnium. Following the end of the war, the Romans annexed Bojano and Fregellae, and forced the Samnites out of Apulia.
In 298 BC, the Third Samnite War broke out due to tension over the Lucanians, who had asked Rome for protection.Harris, William Vernon (1985). War and Imperialism in Republican Rome, 327–70 B.C. Clarendon Press. pp. 177–182, . On another front, treaties between the Romans and Picentes caused conflict with the Etruscans. This war came to end after the Samnite defeat at the Battle of Aquilonia. Afterwards, Samnium was conquered and the Samnites were assimilated into Roman society.
The Samnites supported the faction of Marius and Carbo in the civil war against Sulla. The Samnites and their allies were led by Pontius Telesinus and a Lucanian named Lamponia gens. They gathered an army of 40,000 men and fought a battle against Sulla at the Colline Gates. After their defeat in the battle, and subsequently the war, Pontius was executed.Crawford, Michael Hewson (1993). The Roman Republic. Harvard University Press. pp. 16–17, 21, 33–35, 43, 53, 75, 149–150, 189, 211, 221, 238 .Dart, Dr Christopher J. (2014). The Social War, 91 to 88 BCE: A History of the Italian Insurgency against the Roman Republic. Ashgate Publishing, Ltd. p. 206 ."Appian, Samnite History, Fragments". Retrieved 2021-12-30. p. 9
As a consequence of Sulla's victory and his establishment as Roman dictator he ordered the punishment of those who had opposed him.Roller, Matthew B.. " Exemplarity in Roman Culture: The Cases of Horatius Cocles and Cloelia ." Classical Philology 99 (2004): 1–57. Samnites, who were some of the most prominent supporters of the Marians, were punished so severely that it was recorded: "some of their cities have now dwindled into villages, some indeed being entirely deserted." The Samnites did not play any prominent role in history after this, and they were Latinized and assimilated into the Roman world."Lacus Curtius, Vellius Paterculus, Book II, Chapters 1–28". penelope.uchicago.edu. Retrieved 2021-12-30. Several of their gens would go on to achieve high distinction, including the Cassia gens, the Herennia gens, Pontia gens and the Vibia gens.
The prominence of pastoralism and livestock in the Samnite economy was also a consequence of their homeland's terrain. , poultry, cattle, , , and sheep were all common and important kinds of livestock.Anthony Everitt (2012). The Rise of Rome: The Making of the World's Greatest Empire. Random House. pp. 151–180 These animals were valued because they could serve as a tradeable good, and as a source of food. Transhumance, or the seasonal movement of livestock from summer to winter , was an important aspect of the Samnite economy.Edwards, Iorwerth Eiddon Stephen; Gadd, Cyril John; Hammond, Nicholas Geoffrey Lemprière; Boardman, John; Lewis, David Malcolm; Walbank, Frank William; Astin, A. E.; Crook, John Anthony; Lintott, Andrew William (1970). The Cambridge Ancient History. Cambridge University Press. p. 353 .Marco, Michele Antonio Di (2020). Mundunur: A Mountain Village Under the Spell of South Italy. Via Media Publishing. pp. 41–47 . Annual short distance transhumance formed the basis of the aristocracy's wealth. Long distance transhumance was practiced between Apulia and Samnium.
During the fifth and fourth centuries BC, an increasing population combined with trade links to other Italians contributed to further agricultural and Urban planning. This change was most drastic in Larino. The city began as a major grain producer with a mill and a threshing floor, and later developed into the Financial centre for all Economics in the Biferno. The Samnites exported goods such as , , , olive oil, wine, bronze, iron, , , and .Peralta, Dan-el Padilla (2020). Divine Institutions: Religions and Community in the Middle Roman Republic. Princeton University Press. p. 280 Robinson, Elizabeth C. (2021). Urban Transformation in Ancient Molise: The Integration of Larinum Into the Roman State. Oxford University Press. p. 50 . They also materials such as bronze and bucchero from places like Campania, Etruria, Latium, Apulia, and Magna Graecia. These trade networks resulted in the adoption of products and ideas from other cultures such as the Sabines, Latins, and Etruscans. "Rome's Glorious Cities". Anonymous Prod. Fuller Linda, and Paola Di Florio. A&E Television Networks, 1997. "The Etruscans lived side by side with the Latins, the Samnites and the Sabines. These tribes intermixed in trade and lifestyle"" Tomb discovered in Pompeii is window into world scientists know little about." Christian Science Monitor, 25 Sept. 2015. Gale OneFile: News. "Scientists think that the pottery buried near the newly discovered Samnite woman comes from other regions of Italy, suggesting that there was trade between the Samnites and the other cultures of Italy at that time."
Samnite currency developed in the late fifth and early fourth centuries BC, likely as a consequence of interaction with the Greeks, and war, which created a need for Mercenary. Their bronze or silver currency might have been produced in Naples, and then "ordered" from the city's . Alternatively, Samnite cities might have supplied the materials necessary for making currency. Or coins could have been imported from cities that Samnite mercenaries worked for. Such as Taranto. Currency at this time generally depicted places like Allifae, Nola, Philistia, or peoples such as the Campani. These images are associated with the development of the Samnite political structure. may have not been used by individuals, but instead by government institutions to finance administrative tasks. Following this early period of high currency production, the Samnites began to mint less money. and tweezers]] Wool and leather were likely harvested by the Samnites in significant quantities, as evidenced by the numerous loom weights found throughout Samnium. Most loom weights used Cutting lines, dots, oval stamps, Gemstone impressions, or imprints from metal signet rings to create patterns. Common patterns included , , or dotted or incised cross motifs. Motifs could have been shaped like Leaf, , , or Myth. One loom weight from the town of Locri is decorated with a gem impression of a satyr playing the lyre. Numerous pieces of Samnite pottery with Greek language words incised into them have been found. These Greek words may have served a variety of possibilities, such as instructing the weaver how to order the threads in the textile patterns, or they could also have marked the piece's quality. The Greek inscriptions may also have stated the weight of either the loom weight or the cloth, and possibly the cloth's .Sofroniew, Alexandra. " Women's Work: The Dedication of Loom Weights in the Sanctuaries of Southern Italy." Pallas, no. 86, Presses Universitaires du Midi, 2011, pp. 191–209, .
The Samnites also produced , terracottas, and impasto pottery with black gloss. Protective coating, also called varnish, was used to cover pottery and amphorae. Most amphorae came from Rhodes, and pottery was commonly purchased from Ancient Greece." The Dominance of Athens." Arts and Humanities Through the Eras, edited by Edward I. Bleiberg, et al., vol. 2: Ancient Greece and Rome 1200 B.C.E.–476 C.E. Gale, 2005, pp. 397–402. Gale eBooks, Pottery was also rarely imported from North Africa or areas by the Adriatic Sea. After the urbanization of Samnite society, the production of Hellenistic or Italian pottery dramatically increased. Ceramics, pottery, and amphorae often used patterns. The majority of these patterns were or from the craftsmen. On other occasions, they depicted places such as the island of Rhodes, or named government officials., such as the Meddíss Túvtíks.Vargas, Enrique García; Almeida, Rui Roberto de; Cesteros, Horacio González; Romero, Antonio Sáez (2019). The Ovoid Amphorae in the Central and Western Mediterranean: Between the last two centuries of the Republic and the early days of the Roman Empire. Archaeopress Publishing Ltd. pp. 259–261 . One example of a pottery stamp is:
Polity similar to councils, assemblies, or Roman Senate such as the kombennio possibly existed. The Kombennio was a Democracy organization in Pompeii responsible for electing officials, as well as Legislature and enforcing them.Enrico Campanile, Cesare Letta, "Studi sulle magistrature indigene e municipali in area italica", Giardini, 1979, pp. 24–25 Senates were located at the Capital city of the Samnite tribes, such as Bovianum, the capital. It is unclear if these forms of government existed before the Roman conquest.McDonald, Katherine (2021). Italy Before Rome: A Sourcebook. Routledge. p. 111 . Despite these democratic institutions, Samnite society was still dominated by a small group of aristocratic families such as the Papia gens, Statia gens, Egnatia gens, and Staia gens.Van Dusen, Rachel (June 1, 2009). " Saving Face: Pentrian Samnite Elites in the Aftermath of the Samnite Wars (343-290 B.C.)". Etruscan Studies. 12: 153–168 – via De Gruyter. Each Samnite tribe functioned independently from the others. However, a union similar to the Latin League would occasionally form between the tribes. Such an alliance would be primarily Militarism, with a commander and chief enforcing all laws enacted by the alliance." Samnite (people)". Encyclopædia Britannica Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. "Four cantons formed a Samnite confederation: Hirpini, Caudini, Caraceni, and Pentri. The league probably had no federal assembly, but a war leader could be chosen to lead a campaign." In order for the alliance to pass legislation, leading men of each tribe would have to unanimously agree before a bill could become a law. Such an alliance was rare, and even if some tribes unified others might refuse to unite with the other tribes. The Frentani was another Italic tribe that might have been included in this alliance, however, their importance to the union might be exaggerated. The relevance of the Samnite tribes in this organization might also be exaggerated; cities could have had more political power.Nikoletta Farkas, "Leadership among the Samnites and related Oscan-speaking peoples between the fifth and first centuries BC" (PhD diss., Kings College of London, September 2006)
This system of government maintained itself after the Roman conquest of Samnium albeit with some reductions in power. The touto and pagus began to function as miniature Republics, while the vicus remained unchanged. The only interference from the Romans would be that the Municipium held authority over all previous institutions and could override them, while the had little authority over the Samnites.
Livy mentions a legio linteata ("linen legion"); this unit used flamboyant equipment to differentiate itself from other Samnite warriors. According to Livy, this legion took an oath to never flee battle inside a linen structure. Scholars believe that this description was designed to highlight the differences between the "civilized" Romans, and the barbaric enemies of Rome. Livy also could have been attempting to try and convey Samnite historical and religious power through a single unit. Due to corroborating archaeological evidence, other scholars state that it would be "rash" to completely dismiss this entire story.
Broad belts made of leather, gold, or bronze were common pieces of armor, and significant to Samnite culture. They were likely dedicated to protecting the abdomen. Samnite belts were made by heating up tin alloys at 800 degrees Celsius. Afterward, work would be performed on the belt at a temperature ranging from 600 to 800 degrees Celsius. and were used to grind the strips, giving them the appearance of silver. When making the belts, a thermal treatment was used in repeated cycles to increase the durability of the material.
Samnite helmets were based on Greek military equipmentthey used cheek guards, crests, and plumes. Crests were usually made by Fastener horse tails to a metal piece that hung at the back of the helmet. could also be used to pin crests to the helmet's peak. Another type of crest was thin and bushy with long free-flowing ends. and horns were a common feature of Samnite crests and plumes. Soldiers would don their greaves by resting their leg on a rock whilst using their hands to test the Fit model of the equipment. This piece of equipment reached down to the ankle and was likely custom-made to fit the owner. There are few depictions of Samnite soldiers wearing graves, implying that they were rarely used outside of rituals and "mock-fights."
Alongside spears, soldiers would use or even hand-to-hand combat. Depictions on pottery, and figurines such as the Capestrano Warrior showcase Samnite soldiers using a kind of Bronze Age sword called an antenna sword. Another kind of sword associated with the Samnite civilization is the short sword. Short swords were carried using a long strap fastened to either the warrior's body or the sword's hilt. Samnite art depicts soldiers receiving swords in ritual ceremonies, and warriors eager to receive swords, implying that short swords were highly valued in Samnite society. Maces were rarer than spears or javelins, yet still common. They had heavy and undecorated iron heads attached to a handle hoisted with a hole or a socket. were rarely used; they may have primarily been symbols of power.
There is little archaeological record of the Samnite shield, as most of the remaining shields have had much of their components destroyed. Samnite art commonly depicts Samnite soldiers using a round shield called an aspis. To carry the shield, two were used. One strap was leather, decorated with patterns, and ran vertically over the middle of the shield. Another strap used to provide a firm grip ran vertically near the shield's edge. Alongside aspides, the Samnites possibly used bronze oval shields with pointed ends and incised decorations. It is possible that the Samnites used Scutum. It is also possible that the Samnite scutum influenced the Roman shield; however, evidence for this is unclear. Samnite art depicts their soldiers carrying scuta; however, it is either as Trophy taken from the enemy or an attempt to mimic ancient Greek art.Taylor, M. J. (2020). "Panoply and Identity During the Roman Republic". Papers of the British School at Rome, 88, 31–65. "One origin story for the scutum is surely false, namely that it was adopted from the Samnites. Fourth-century BC Oscan warriors carried round shields, including the infantryman on a well-preserved wall painting from Paestum. The first scuta turn up in Oscan painting not as weapons but rather as loot triumphantly carried home in 'return of the warrior' scenes (perhaps captured from the Romans!)Taylor, Michael J. " Fear the phalanx: the Macedonian formation terrified opponents—and at times overwhelmed the vaunted Roman legion." MHQ: The Quarterly Journal of Military History, vol. 23, no. 2, winter 2011, pp. 10+. Gale General OneFile "They likely adopted javelins (pila) and oblong, concave shields from the Samnites, a central Italian people." Livy states that the Samnite shield was broad near the shoulder and chest, but thinner closer to the feet. Archaeological evidence does not substantiate this idea. Livy possibly mistook the equipment of a Samnite gladiator for that of a Samnite soldier.
Samnite gravesites often contained goods. For example, wealthy individuals had graves with statues or steles. These goods indicated the wealth and status of the individual in life. Burials required that certain practices be observed in order to bury the dead adequately.Perego, Elisa; Scopacasa, Rafael (2016). Burial and Social Change in First Millennium BC Italy: Approaching Social Agents. Oxbow Books. .Dolfini, Andrea; Crellin, Rachel J.; Horn, Christian; Uckelmann, Marion (2018). Prehistoric Warfare and Violence: Quantitative and Qualitative Approaches. Springer. pp. 61–66 .Welch, Katherine E. (2007). The Roman Amphitheatre: From Its Origins to the Colosseum. Cambridge University Press. . Burial was likely a sign of social status as it was rare to be buried, despite the Samnite belief in an afterlife.
Sanctuaries were important to the Samnite religion. They served a variety of purposes: they siphoned money off transhumance routes, marked borders, served as centers for communication and places of worship, and played a role in government. Over time, sanctuaries become much less prominent in Samnite culture, and were all abandoned soon afterwards.Watts, James W. (2021). Understanding the Bible as a Scripture in History, Culture, and Religion. John Wiley & Sons. .Mansfield, Harvey C. (2001). Machiavelli's New Modes and Orders: A Study of the Discourses on Livy. University of Chicago Press. .
The geographer Strabo states that the Samnites would take ten Virginity women and ten young men, who were considered to be the best representation of their sex, and marry them. , Strabo, Book 5, p. 467. "And they say that among the Samnitae there is a law which is indeed honourable and conducive to noble qualities; for they are not permitted to give their daughters in marriage to whom they wish, but every year ten virgins and ten young men, the noblest of each sex, are selected, and, of these, the first choice of the virgins is given to the first choice of the young men, and the second to the second, and so on to the end; but if the young man who wins the meed of honour changes and turns out bad, they disgrace him and take away from him the woman given him." Following this, the second-best women would be given to the second-best males. This would continue until all 20 people had been assigned to one another. It is possible that the "best" men and women were chosen based on Sport capabilities. If any of the individuals involved dishonored themselves, they would be displaced and forcibly separated from their partners.
Samnite society may have enforced a Gender role, who were supposed to be warriors, and women, who were supposed to be "bejeweled". Ancient historians describe the Samnites as a warlike people; however much of this is possibly propaganda. Campanian pottery often depicts Samnite warriors and cavalrymen fighting, while Apulian pottery tends to depict them in a wider variety of circumstances. Pottery from those same cultures also depicts armed men involved with other activities such as burying the dead or marriage. Differences between male and female graves also support this theory. Men were buried with weapons and armor, while women were buried with domestic goods such as spindles or Jewellery. Young adult women were typically buried with coils, pendants, beads, clothing, spindles, and fibulae similar to those worn by boys,Riccio, Anthony V. (2014). Farms, Factories, and Families: Italian American Women of Connecticut. SUNY Press. . possibly meaning that femininity was tied to youth in Samnite culture. Men wore much smaller and less elaborate fibulae, possibly indicating that the male identity was tied to maturity. The skeletons of men and women also show differences in Injury. Male skeletons found near Pontecagnano Faiano have a Head injury rate of 13%, while only 8% of female skeletons showed cranial trauma. Another community at Alfedena has male Samnite skeletons with similar rates of cranial injury. This indicates that Samnite men may have been expected to serve as warriors and fight, while women were not. However, a large number of graves are not buried with their respective gender's items. Samnite men have been buried with goods typically associated with women, and a few Samnite women have been buried with goods associated with men.Jones, Howard (2004). Samnium: Settlement and Cultural Change : the Proceedings of the Third E. Togo Salmon Conference on Roman Studies. Center for Old World Archaeology and Art. . Only 3% of men in Campo Consolino were buried with their respective gender's goods, while one in five women were buried with weaponry. Men have also been found buried with domestic goods. This could be explained if these goods were not indicative of the person's responsibilities in life, but instead were offerings to the dead. The rarity of certain burial goods could indicate that they were exclusive to high-status individuals. For example, jewelry could be explained as an indication of wealth or femininity. Differences in jewelry between the graves of adolescent and young adult women could be a form of preventative healthcare; it may have been done to protect them in childbirth.
Analysis of has shown that both genders have , , and injuries, although men have these injuries much more commonly. This difference could be explained by greater amounts of male skeletons than female skeletons. Other skeletons showcase similarities between the lives of men and women. For example, both have Dentistry, implying that they had with low amounts of . The art depicts groups of both men and women honoring both dead men and women, indicating that Samnite men and women could be honored in similar ways after death. Each gender may have had different, but equally important roles. Another possibility is that the Samnites had two categories for gender, one being adult males, and the other, everyone else.
The Samnites possibly practiced ritualized prostitution. Young women of all social standings would engage in sexual activities as a rite of passage. It is possible this practice would transform from a ritual into a profession.Williams, D. (2004, Aug 05). A whole new subculture emerges in old pompeii ; archeologists dig below the roman ruins and discover an even more ancient civilization that ultimately gave in to imperial conquerors: [chicago final edition]. Chicago Tribune "The bath and amulets indicate the Samnite practice of ritual prostitution, in which young women submitted to sex as a rite of passage, said Curti, the archeologist. "
Samnite art featured polychrome and . The murals usually used black or red cement pavements outlined with designs that ran across . There were two different styles of tesserae: worm-like, or miculatum, and woven-style, or Opus tessellatum,. Miculatum consisted of inserting marble and terracotta trays into a mosaic floor. The oppus tessellatum style used tesserae to create an appearance resembling weaving. Samnite art was usually colorful, and it often depicted myths, , or Greek subjects. Murals found in Pompeii were designed to create an idyllic sense.
Aside from the murals, other works of Samnite art have survived to the modern day. On the walls of a sanctuary at Pietrabbondante there is an unidentifiable relief that is possibly an atlas. Another possible work of Samnite or Roman art in Isernia depicts two helmeted warriors. One example of Samnite figurative art may be the Warrior of Capestrano. The statue was, however, found in Vestini territory and depicts a Picentine warrior.
Men wore rings, with snake heads, and collars. Collars were usually pierced with holes from which they suspended amulets and pendants and engraved with incised decorations. Collars would be given to the man in , and never removed. Bearskins were also common clothing.
Female clothing was similar to Greek apparel. Women wore long sleeveless Peplos, , similar to a pileus, chitons, decorated belts, and chatelaine. The chatelaine had a central section consisting of mail and metal spirals made from perforated discs of metal.Horsnaes, Helle W.; Helle, W. Horsnaes (2002). The Cultural Development in North Western Lucania C. 600–273 BC. L'Erma di Bretschneider. . An essential part of Samnite women's clothing was garments long enough to touch the ground. These were worn alongside colored that were fastened beneath the chin and held together with a brooch. Samnite capes covered the whole Thorax, the , and the , although and amulets remained visible, as the neckline of the cape did not touch the shoulders. Women also wore another kind of cape similar to a jacket. This jacket had , was fastened at the front, used a low-cut neckline, and fit the body tightly, covering much of it with folding. The frontal part of the jacket hung just below the waist, which is also nearby where it was kept. Samnite were heavily influenced by Greek clothing. They covered with a himation that usually also covered the as well as drapery. Women wore headdresses made from a folded piece of cloth. One depiction of this kind of headdress shows it as a long veil that was folded and ran across the head. Another piece of art shows a Samnite woman wearing a hairnet beneath a Cylinder headdress with white and red stripes running across it. Some kinds of clothing were gender neutral. Red, white, or black belts covered in motifs that were usually made by using hooks to fasten cloth or leather into holes were worn by both genders. It was common in ancient Samnium for both men and women to wear no footwear. Despite this, numerous shoe styles still existed. Some shoes were low, some reached to the ankles, and others had a small hole at their tip. Another kind used an accentuated upper edge and reached higher than the ankles. Styles of footwear did not vary greatly between gender, except for styles of boot. Female boots were usually ankle-high, while male boots reached higher. To secure the lacing of the shoe, white buttons and pointed, curved, or short lines that ran across horizontal laces could be used. Samnite sandals had white soles that used a strap to attach the soles to the foot. One kind of sandal left the foot uncovered, while the other covered it up. Socks may have existed in ancient Samnium. If they did not, an alternative could have existed, such as a sort of soft fabric used as a replacement for socks.
Italic pottery and Samnite tomb paintings depict Samnite warriors wearing . These were usually made from one piece of cloth and decorated with black or white motifs that were almost always placed on the sleeves, though rarely on the lower part of the tunic. Common motifs included stripes or dots. Tunics were held together at the midriff by broad leather belts.
Livy describes Samnite soldiers wearing two kinds of clothing. One was referred to as versicolor, meaning the clothing used contrasting colors. These clothes might have been designed to give a chameleon-like appearance Livy may have intended to invoke ideas of Aeneas, who once allied with a warrior named Astyr, who had multi-colored weapons and armor. It also may have been designed to showcase the worthiness of the Samnites as opponents of Rome. These are not the only possibilitiesLivy may have wanted to reference Plato's Republic, which compares Republics to a multi-colored garment. Also, multi-colored clothing may have symbolized wealth. The other group of Samnites wore silver clothing and carried weapons.
Gladiatorial games may have originated in Samnium. Latin literature and Greek authors such as Livy, Strabo, Horace, Athenaeus, and Silius Italicus mention that the Campanian aristocrats would host gladiator games during their banquets. It is possible that the Samnite gladiator originated from these Oscan and Samnite games. However, evidence for this is inconclusive. Other scholars believe that gladiatorial games originated from Etruria, the Celts, or the city of Mantineia. The word Gladiator may imply a connection between gladiatorial games and the Etruscans. Although the earliest gladiators were called Samnites, the word lanista may have no connection to the Etruscans. Art from Campania depicts Samnites in gladiatorial games. One piece of art depicts a dead gladiator with a spear stuck in the head. This indicates that the Samnites likely were not averse to brutality. Art also showcases large gladiatorial games alongside chariot racing and banquets, implying that Samnite gladiatorial games were grandiose and for entertainment. Alternatively, these games may have been conducted at . Games are usually depicted taking place near funerals, and pomegranates are depicted in the background, which was symbols of the afterlife. The warriors in these funerary games are depicted wearing colorful armor.
Chariot racing and hunting with projectile weaponry were Recreation practiced by Samnite men. In Pompeii, ancient baths were built during the time the Samnites ruled the city.
Samnite cities began to develop walls and other defensive fortifications during the Samnite Wars. Walls were usually rough and crude, and located by the crest of a hill with no other defenses nearby. This indicated that they were built to allow the defending army to retreat and regroup, rather than protect the city. City gates were heavily fortified on the left side, but not on the right. This was done to force soldiers to attack the city on the side they were not holding their shield on.
built with Walling may have been either a common defensive fortification or a form of settlement that represented a transitional phase between a more Rural area society and a more urban one. It is unclear if these hillforts were permanent defenses as they may have only been inhabited temporarily. Scholars have proposed other possible purposes for the Samnite hillforts. They may have played a role in government. Forts may have also been used to pass along Beacon.Bispham, E.H., et al. " Towards a phenomenology of Samnite fortified centres." Antiquity, vol. 74, no. 283, Mar. 2000, p. 23. Gale Academic OneFile " Samnite `hill-forts' for the purposes of passing fire signals between the Sangro and Volturno valleys ."
Samnite architecture in Pompeii or Herculaneum often resembled that of Greek architecture. For example, , , , and were all borrowed from the Greeks. Other techniques were borrowed from the Etruscans. Such as breaking up orthostates with narrow blocks. The Samnite palaestra in Pompeii is made from a rectangular courtyard surrounded by and Doric order made of tufa. A peristyle courtyard lies to the west of the palaestra. This building was similar to Greek palaestra, and was likely either a gymnasium, religious site, or a campus. (2025). 9783981968507, Edition Topoi. ISBN 9783981968507 Houses were built on foundations topped with smaller blocks laid in courses. In order to elevate the foundation, dados and orthostats were inserted into the fauces. Blocks of stone also needed to be put alongside the base of the wall. Walls were usually made of rubble. The rubble could have been carved to make it resemble carved blocks of stone, rather than rubble. Alongside this practice, layers of plaster were spread over it. Plaster was also used to make . This was done by applying pigment to the plaster whilst it was Moisture. Another construction material called stucco was often painted, creating the appearance of a house covered in marble." Roman Painting." Arts and Humanities Through the Eras, edited by Edward I. Bleiberg, et al., vol. 2: Ancient Greece and Rome 1200 B.C.E.–476 C.E. Gale, 2005, p 435. Gale eBooks, Atriums were a common feature of Samnite houses. They used Impluvium, loggia, and . Façades made of tuff, tabernae, , dentil supported by Cube capitals, which are the upper part of a column, used and were all located outside of the houses. Roofs with made of stone and tiles." Roman Painting." Arts and Humanities Through the Eras, edited by Edward I. Bleiberg, et al., vol. 2: Ancient Greece and Rome 1200 B.C.E.–476 C.E. Gale, 2005, pp. 435–439. Gale eBooks,
Small, personal, and makeshift farms or houses were common buildings.Barker, Graeme. "The Archaeology of the Italian Shepherd." Proceedings of the Cambridge Philological Society, no. 35 (215), 1989, pp. 1–19. One farmhouse found near Campobasso consists of a square Modular building, which was likely a stable house, and a series of rooms with centered around a courthouse. The house has a small mortar line basin, a dolia, and other container vessels. Indicating that these materials were used for the process and storage of produce. Another farmstead was built in 200 BC using limestone blocks held together by yellow mortar. An archaeological site known as "ACQ 11000" had a Terraced house covered in thick clay, a walled space with a paved floor, and a stone wall.Smith, Christopher J, et al. "Archaeological Field Reports ." Papers of the British School at Rome, vol. 83, 2015, pp. 310–311.
through the powerful influence of this ruler, the cardinal-priest, Felix of Samnium, son of Castorius, was brought forward in Rome as John's successor, the clergy and laity yielded to the wish of the Gothic king and chose Felix pope
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