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Rye ( Secale cereale) is a Poaceae grown extensively as a grain, a cover crop and a forage crop. It is grown principally in an area from Eastern and Northern Europe into Russia. It is much more tolerant of cold weather and poor soil than other cereals, making it useful in those regions; its vigorous growth suppresses weeds and provides abundant forage for animals early in the year. It is a member of the wheat tribe (Triticeae) which includes the cereals wheat and barley. It is likely that rye arrived in Europe as a secondary crop, meaning that it was a minor admixture in wheat as a result of Vavilovian mimicry, and was only later cultivated in its own right.
Rye grain is used for rye bread, rye beer, rye whiskey, and animal fodder. In Scandinavia, rye was a staple food in the Middle Ages, and rye crispbread remains a popular food in the region. Europe produces around half of the world's rye; relatively little is traded between countries. A wheat-rye hybrid, triticale, combines the qualities of the two parent crops and is produced in large quantities worldwide. In European folklore, the Roggenwolf ("rye wolf") is a carnivorous corn demon or Feldgeister]].
The generic name Secale, related to Italian segale and French seigle meaning "rye", is of unknown origin but may derive from a Balkan language. The English name rye derives from Old English ryge, related to Dutch rogge, German Roggen, and Russian рожь , again all with the same meaning.
Rye is one of several cereals that grow wild in the Levant, central and eastern Turkey and adjacent areas. Evidence uncovered at the Epipalaeolithic site of Tell Abu Hureyra in the Euphrates valley of northern Syria suggests that rye was among the first cereal crops to be systematically cultivated, around 13,000 years ago. However, that claim remains controversial; critics point to inconsistencies in the radiocarbon dates, and identifications based solely on grain, rather than on chaff.
Domesticated rye occurs in small quantities at a number of Neolithic sites in Asia Minor (Anatolia, now Turkey), such as the Pre-Pottery Neolithic B Can Hasan III near Çatalhöyük, but is otherwise absent from the archaeological record until the Bronze Age of central Europe, c. 1800–1500 BCE.
It is likely that rye was brought westwards from Asia Minor as a secondary crop, meaning that it was a minor admixture in wheat as a result of Vavilovian mimicry, and was only later cultivated in its own right. Archeological evidence of this grain has been found in Ancient Rome contexts along the Rhine and the Danube and in Ireland and Britain. page 26. The Roman naturalist Pliny the Elder was dismissive of a grain that may have been rye, writing that it "is a very poor food and only serves to avert starvation". He said it was mixed with spelt "to mitigate its bitter taste, and even then is most unpleasant to the stomach".
Rye grows well in much poorer soils than those necessary for most cereal grains. Thus, it is an especially valuable crop in regions where the soil has sand or peat. Rye plants withstand cold better than other small grains, surviving snow cover that would kill winter wheat. Winter rye is the most popular: it is planted and begins to grow in autumn. In spring, the plants develop rapidly. This allows it to provide spring grazing, at a time when spring-planted wheat has only just germinated.
The physical properties of rye affect attributes of the final food product such as seed size, surface area, and porosity. The surface area of the seed directly correlates to the drying and heat transfer time. Smaller seeds have increased heat transfer, which leads to lower drying time. Seeds with lower porosity lose water more slowly during the process of drying.
Rye is like wheat with a combine harvester, which cuts the plants, threshing and winnowing the grain, and releases the straw to the field where it is later pressed into bales or left as soil amendment. The resultant grain is stored in local or transported to regional and combined with other lots for storage and distant shipment. Before the era of mechanised agriculture, rye harvesting was a manual labour task performed with or .
Rye grows better than any other cereal in heavy clay and light sandy soil, and infertile or drought-affected soils. It can tolerate pH between 4.5 and 8.0, but soils having pH 5.0 to 7.0 are best suited for rye cultivation. Rye grows best in fertile, well-drained loam or clay-loam soils. As for temperature, the crop can thrive in subzero environments, assisted by the production of antifreeze polypeptides (different from those produced by some fish and insects) by the leaves of winter rye.
Rye is a common, grass weed of winter wheat fields. If allowed to grow and mature, it may cause substantially reduced prices (docking) for harvested wheat.
Rye is highly susceptible to the ergot fungus. ergot , online medical dictionary ergot, Dorland's Medical Dictionary Consumption of ergot-infected rye by humans and animals results in ergotism, which causes convulsions, miscarriage, necrosis of digits, hallucinations and death. Historically, damp northern countries that depended on rye as a staple crop were subject to periodic epidemics. Modern grain-cleaning and milling methods have practically eliminated ergotism, but it remains a risk if food safety vigilance breaks down.
After an absence of 60 years, stem rust ( Puccinia graminis f. sp. tritici) has returned to Europe in the 2020s. Areas affected include Germany, Russia (Western Siberia), Spain, and Sweden.
| + Rye production | |
| 3,124,200 | |
| 2,533,220 | |
| 1,700,000 | |
| 780,000 | |
| 601,130 | |
| 518,640 | |
| 12,680,515 | |
In 2023, world production of rye was 12.7 million , led by Germany with 25% of the total, and Poland and Russia as major secondary producers (table).
Eating whole-grain rye, as well as other high-fiber grains, improves regulation of blood sugar (i.e., reduces blood glucose response to a meal). Consuming containing rye over weeks to months also improved cholesterol levels and glucose regulation.
Rye grain is used to make alcoholic drinks, such as rye whiskey and rye beer. The traditional cloudy and sweet-sour low-alcohol beverage kvass is fermented from rye bread or rye flour and malt.
Rye straw is used as livestock bedding, despite the risk of ergot poisoning. It is used on a small scale to make such as corn dolly. More recently it has found uses as a raw material for bioconversion to products such as the sweetener xylitol. (2025). 9780128114131, Elsevier. ISBN 9780128114131
Rye flour is boiled with red iron oxide pigments and some additives to make traditional Falun red paint, widely used as a house paint in Sweden and other Scandinavian countries.
Varieties of rye hold much genetic diversity, which cites which can be used to improve other crops such as wheat. For example, the pollination abilities of wheat can be improved by the addition of the rye chromosome 4R; this increases the size of the wheat anther and the amount of pollen. The chromosome is the source of many crop disease resistance genes. Varieties such as Petkus, Insave, Amigo, and Imperial have donated 1R-originating resistance to wheat. AC Hazlet rye is a medium-sized winter rye with resistance to both lodging and shattering. Rye was the gene donor of Sr31 – a stem rust resistance gene – introgressed into wheat.
The characteristics of S. cereale have been combined with another perennial rye, Secale montanum, to produce Secale cereanum, which has the beneficial characteristics of each. The hybrid rye can be grown in harsh environments and on poor soil. It provides improved forage with digestible fiber and protein.
In contrast, the Roggenmuhme or Roggenmutter ("rye aunt" or "rye mother") is an anthropomorphic female corn demon with fiery fingers. Her bosoms are filled with tar and may end in tips of iron. Her bosoms are also long, and as such must be thrown over her shoulders when she runs. The Roggenmuhme is completely black or white, and in her hand she has a birch or whip from which lightning sparks. She can change herself into different animals, such as snakes, turtles, and frogs.
The classical scholar Carl A. P. Ruck writes that the Roggenmutter was believed to go through the fields, rustling like the wind, with a pack of rye wolves running after her. They spread ergot through the sheaves of harvested rye. According to Ruck, they then lured children into the fields to nurse on the infected grains "like the iron teats of the Roggenmutter". The enlarged reddish ergot-infected grains were known as Wulfzähne (wolf teeth).
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