Pi

 ( Featured Article ) 

The number (; spelled out as pi) is a mathematical constant, approximately equal to 3.14159, that is the ratio of a circle's circumference to its diameter. It appears in many formulae across mathematics and physics, and some of these formulae are commonly used for defining , to avoid relying on the definition of the arc length.

The number is an irrational number, meaning that it cannot be expressed exactly as a ratio of two integers, although fractions such as $\backslash tfrac\{22\}\{7\}$ are commonly used to approximate it. Consequently, its decimal representation never ends, nor enters a permanently repeating pattern. It is a transcendental number, meaning that it cannot be a solution of an algebraic equation involving only finite sums, products, powers, and integers. The transcendence of implies that it is impossible to solve the ancient challenge of squaring the circle with a compass and straightedge. The decimal digits of appear to be random sequence, but no proof of this conjecture has been found.

For thousands of years, mathematicians have attempted to extend their understanding of , sometimes by computing its value to a high degree of accuracy. Ancient civilizations, including the Egyptians and Babylonians, required fairly accurate approximations of for practical computations. Around 250BC, the Greek mathematician Archimedes created an algorithm to approximate with arbitrary accuracy. In the 5th century AD, Chinese mathematicians approximated to seven digits, while Indian mathematicians made a five-digit approximation, both using geometrical techniques. The first computational formula for , based on infinite series, was discovered a millennium later. The earliest known use of the Greek letter π to represent the ratio of a circle's circumference to its diameter was by the Welsh mathematician William Jones in 1706. The invention of calculus soon led to the calculation of hundreds of digits of , enough for all practical scientific computations. Nevertheless, in the 20th and 21st centuries, mathematicians and computer science have pursued new approaches that, when combined with increasing computational power, extended the decimal representation of to many trillions of digits. These computations are motivated by the development of efficient algorithms to calculate numeric series, as well as the human quest to break records. The extensive computations involved have also been used to test as well as stress testing consumer computer hardware.

Because it relates to a circle, is found in many formulae in trigonometry and geometry, especially those concerning circles, ellipses and spheres. It is also found in formulae from other topics in science, such as cosmology, , thermodynamics, mechanics, and electromagnetism. It also appears in areas having little to do with geometry, such as number theory and statistics, and in modern mathematical analysis can be defined without any reference to geometry. The ubiquity of makes it one of the most widely known mathematical constants inside and outside of science. Several books devoted to have been published, and record-setting calculations of the digits of often result in news headlines.

---

Fundamentals

---

Name The symbol used by mathematicians to represent the ratio of a circle's circumference to its diameter is the lowercase Greek letter , sometimes spelled out as pi. In English, is pronounced as "pie" ( ). In mathematical use, the lowercase letter is distinguished from its capitalized and enlarged counterpart , which denotes a product of a sequence, analogous to how denotes summation.

The choice of the symbol is discussed in the section Adoption of the symbol .

---

Definition

is commonly defined as the [[ratio]] of a [[circle]]'s [[circumference]]  to its [[diameter]] :
     

$$\backslash pi\; =\; \backslash frac\{C\}\{d\}$$

The ratio $\backslash frac\{C\}\{d\}$ is constant, regardless of the circle's size. For example, if a circle has twice the diameter of another circle, it will also have twice the circumference, preserving the ratio $\backslash frac\{C\}\{d\}$. This definition of implicitly makes use of flat (Euclidean) geometry; although the notion of a circle can be extended to any curve (non-Euclidean) geometry, these new circles will no longer satisfy the formula $\backslash pi=\backslash frac\{C\}\{d\}$.

Here, the circumference of a circle is the arc length around the perimeter of the circle, a quantity which can be formally defined independently of geometry using limits—a concept in calculus. For example, one may directly compute the arc length of the top half of the unit circle, given in Cartesian coordinates by the equation $x^2+y^2=1$, as the integral:

$$\backslash pi\; =\; \backslash int\_\{-1\}^1\; \backslash frac\{dx\}\{\backslash sqrt\{1-x^2\}\}.$$

An integral such as this was proposed as a definition of by Karl Weierstrass, who defined it directly as an integral in 1841.

Integration is no longer commonly used in a first analytical definition because, as explains, differential calculus typically precedes integral calculus in the university curriculum, so it is desirable to have a definition of that does not rely on the latter. One such definition, due to Richard Baltzer and popularized by Edmund Landau, is the following: is twice the smallest positive number at which the cosine function equals 0.

is also the smallest positive number at which the sine function equals zero, and the difference between consecutive zeroes of the sine function. The cosine and sine can be defined independently of geometry as a power series, or as the solution of a differential equation.

In a similar spirit, can be defined using properties of the complex exponential, , of a complex number variable . Like the cosine, the complex exponential can be defined in one of several ways. The set of complex numbers at which is equal to one is then an (imaginary) arithmetic progression of the form:

$$\backslash \{\backslash dots,-2\backslash pi\; i,\; 0,\; 2\backslash pi\; i,\; 4\backslash pi\; i,\backslash dots\backslash \}\; =\; \backslash \{2\backslash pi\; ki\backslash mid\; k\backslash in\backslash mathbb\; Z\backslash \}$$

and there is a unique positive real number with this property.

A variation on the same idea, making use of sophisticated mathematical concepts of topology and algebra, is the following theorem: there is a unique (up to automorphism) continuous isomorphism from the group R/ Z of real numbers under addition quotient group integers (the circle group), onto the multiplicative group of complex numbers of absolute value one. The number is then defined as half the magnitude of the derivative of this homomorphism.

---

Irrationality and normality

is an irrational number, meaning that it cannot be written as the [[ratio of two integers|rational number]]. Fractions such as  and  are commonly used to approximate , but no [[common fraction]] (ratio of whole numbers) can be its exact value. Because  is irrational, it has an infinite number of digits in its decimal representation, and does not settle into an infinitely repeating pattern of digits. There are several proofs that  is irrational; they are generally proofs by contradiction and require calculus. The degree to which  can be approximated by [[rational number]]s (called the irrationality measure) is not precisely known; estimates have established that the irrationality measure is larger or at least equal to the measure of  but smaller than the measure of [[Liouville number]]s.
     

The digits of have no apparent pattern and have passed tests for statistical randomness, including tests for normal number; a number of infinite length is called normal when all possible sequences of digits (of any given length) appear equally often. The conjecture that is normal number has not been proven or disproven.

Since the advent of computers, a large number of digits of have been available on which to perform statistical analysis. Yasumasa Kanada has performed detailed statistical analyses on the decimal digits of , and found them consistent with normality; for example, the frequencies of the ten digits 0 to 9 were subjected to statistical significance tests, and no evidence of a pattern was found. Any random sequence of digits contains arbitrarily long subsequences that appear non-random, by the infinite monkey theorem. Thus, because the sequence of 's digits passes statistical tests for randomness, it contains some sequences of digits that may appear non-random, such as a sequence of six consecutive 9s that begins at the 762nd decimal place of the decimal representation of . This is also called the "Feynman point" in mathematical folklore, after Richard Feynman, although no connection to Feynman is known.

---

Transcendence In addition to being irrational, is also a transcendental number, which means that it is not the solution of any non-constant polynomial equation with rational number coefficients, such as $\backslash frac\{x^5\}\{120\}-\backslash frac\{x^3\}\{6\}+x=0$. This follows from the so-called Lindemann–Weierstrass theorem, which also establishes the transcendence of the constant .

The transcendence of has two important consequences: First, cannot be expressed using any finite combination of rational numbers and square roots or nth root (such as $\backslash sqrt3\{31\}$ or $\backslash sqrt\{10\}$). Second, since no transcendental number can be constructed with compass and straightedge, it is not possible to "square the circle". In other words, it is impossible to construct, using compass and straightedge alone, a square whose area is exactly equal to the area of a given circle. Squaring a circle was one of the important geometry problems of the classical antiquity. Amateur mathematicians in modern times have sometimes attempted to square the circle and claim success—despite the fact that it is mathematically impossible.

, p. 185.

An unsolved problem thus far is the question of whether or not the numbers and are algebraically independent ("relatively transcendental"). This would be resolved by Schanuel's conjecture

– a currently unproven generalization of the Lindemann–Weierstrass theorem.

---

Continued fractions As an irrational number, cannot be represented as a common fraction. But every number, including , can be represented by an infinite series of nested fractions, called a simple continued fraction:

$$$$

Truncating the continued fraction at any point yields a rational approximation for ; the first four of these are , , , and . These numbers are among the best-known and most widely used historical approximations of the constant. Each approximation generated in this way is a best rational approximation; that is, each is closer to than any other fraction with the same or a smaller denominator. Because is transcendental, it is by definition not algebraic number and so cannot be a quadratic irrational. Therefore, cannot have a periodic continued fraction. Although the simple continued fraction for (with numerators all 1, shown above) also does not exhibit any other obvious pattern, several non-simple continued fractions do, such as:

 {1^2}{6+ \cfrac
   {3^2}{6+ \cfrac
     {5^2}{6+ \cfrac
       {7^2}{6+ \ddots}}}}
     

= \cfrac

 {4}{1+ \cfrac
   {1^2}{2+ \cfrac
     {3^2}{2+ \cfrac
       {5^2}{2+ \ddots}}}}
     

= \cfrac

 {4}{1+ \cfrac
   {1^2}{3+ \cfrac
     {2^2}{5+ \cfrac
       {3^2}{7+ \ddots}}}}
     

\end{align}

---

Approximate value and digits Some approximations of pi include:

• Integers: 3
• Fractions: Approximate fractions include (in order of increasing accuracy) , , , , , , and . (List is selected terms from and .)
• Digits: The first 50 decimal digits are (see )

Digits in other number systems

• The first 48 binary (Radix 2) digits (called ) are (see )
• The first 36 digits in ternary (base 3) are (see )
• The first 20 digits in hexadecimal (base 16) are (see )
• The first five sexagesimal (base 60) digits are 3;8,29,44,0,47 Ptolemy used a three-sexagesimal-digit approximation, and Jamshīd al-Kāshī expanded this to nine digits; see
  Asger Aaboe (1964). 9780883856130, Random House. . ISBN 9780883856130
  (see )

---

Complex numbers and Euler's identity Any complex number, say , can be expressed using a pair of . In the polar coordinate system, one number (radius or ) is used to represent 's distance from the origin of the complex plane, and the other (angle or ) the counter-clockwise rotation from the positive real line:

$$z\; =\; r\backslash cdot(\backslash cos\backslash varphi\; +\; i\backslash sin\backslash varphi),$$

where is the imaginary unit satisfying $i^2=-1$. The frequent appearance of in complex analysis can be related to the behaviour of the exponential function of a complex variable, described by Euler's formula:

$$e^\{i\backslash varphi\}\; =\; \backslash cos\; \backslash varphi\; +\; i\backslash sin\; \backslash varphi,$$

where the constant is the base of the natural logarithm. This formula establishes a correspondence between imaginary powers of and points on the unit circle centred at the origin of the complex plane. Setting $\backslash varphi=\backslash pi$ in Euler's formula results in Euler's identity, celebrated in mathematics due to it containing five important mathematical constants:

$$e^\{i\; \backslash pi\}\; +\; 1\; =\; 0.$$

There are different complex numbers satisfying $z^n=1$, and these are called the "-th roots of unity" and are given by the formula:

$$e^\{2\; \backslash pi\; i\; k/n\}\; \backslash qquad\; (k\; =\; 0,\; 1,\; 2,\; \backslash dots,\; n\; -\; 1).$$

---

History Surviving approximations of prior to the 2nd century AD are accurate to one or two decimal places at best. The earliest written approximations are found in Babylon and Egypt, both within one percent of the true value. In Babylon, a clay tablet dated 1900–1600 BC has a geometrical statement that, by implication, treats as  = 3.125. In Egypt, the Rhind Papyrus, dated around 1650 BC but copied from a document dated to 1850 BC, has a formula for the area of a circle that treats as $\backslash bigl(\backslash frac\{16\}\{9\}\backslash bigr)^2\backslash approx3.16$. Although some Pyramidology have theorized that the Great Pyramid of Giza was built with proportions related to , this theory is not widely accepted by scholars.

Roger Herz-Fischler (2025). 9780889203242, Wilfrid Laurier University Press. . ISBN 9780889203242

In the Shulba Sutras of Indian mathematics, dating to an oral tradition from the 1st or 2nd millennium BC, approximations are given which have been variously interpreted as approximately 3.08831, 3.08833, 3.004, 3, or 3.125.

Kim Plofker (2025). 9780691120676, Princeton University Press. ISBN 9780691120676

---

Polygon approximation era The first recorded algorithm for rigorously calculating the value of was a geometrical approach using polygons, devised around 250 BC by the Greek mathematician Archimedes, implementing the method of exhaustion. This polygonal algorithm dominated for over 1,000 years, and as a result is sometimes referred to as Archimedes's constant. Archimedes computed upper and lower bounds of by drawing a regular hexagon inside and outside a circle, and successively doubling the number of sides until he reached a 96-sided regular polygon. By calculating the perimeters of these polygons, he proved that (that is, ).

Jonathan M. Borwein (2025). 9783642367359, Springer. ISBN 9783642367359

Archimedes' upper bound of may have led to a widespread popular belief that is equal to . Around 150 AD, Greco-Roman scientist Ptolemy, in his Almagest, gave a value for of 3.1416, which he may have obtained from Archimedes or from Apollonius of Perga. Mathematicians using polygonal algorithms reached 39 digits of in 1630, a record only broken in 1699 when infinite series were used to reach 71 digits.. Grienberger achieved 39 digits in 1630; Sharp 71 digits in 1699.

In ancient China, values for included 3.1547 (around 1 AD), $\backslash sqrt\{10\}$ (100 AD, approximately 3.1623), and (3rd century, approximately 3.1556). Around 265 AD, the Cao Wei mathematician Liu Hui created a polygon-based iterative algorithm, with which he constructed a 3,072-sided polygon to approximate as 3.1416. Liu later invented a faster method of calculating and obtained a value of 3.14 with a 96-sided polygon, by taking advantage of the fact that the differences in area of successive polygons form a geometric series with a factor of 4. Around 480 AD, Zu Chongzhi calculated that and suggested the approximations $\backslash pi\; \backslash approx\; \backslash frac\{355\}\{113\}\; =\; 3.14159292035...$ and $\backslash pi\; \backslash approx\; \backslash frac\{22\}\{7\}\; =\; 3.142857142857...$, which he termed the milü ('close ratio') and yuelü ('approximate ratio') respectively, iterating with Liu Hui's algorithm up to a 12,288-sided polygon. With a correct value for its seven first decimal digits, Zu's result remained the most accurate approximation of for the next 800 years.

The Indian astronomer Aryabhata used a value of 3.1416 in his Āryabhaṭīya (499 AD). Around 1220, Fibonacci computed 3.1418 using a polygonal method devised independently of Archimedes. Italian author Dante apparently employed the value $3+\backslash frac\{\backslash sqrt\{2\}\}\{10\}\; \backslash approx\; 3.14142$.

The Persian astronomer Jamshīd al-Kāshī produced nine sexagesimal digits, roughly the equivalent of 16 decimal digits, in 1424, using a polygon with $3\backslash times\; 2^\{28\}$ sides, which stood as the world record for about 180 years. French mathematician François Viète in 1579 achieved nine digits with a polygon of $3\backslash times\; 2^\{17\}$ sides. Flemish mathematician Adriaan van Roomen arrived at 15 decimal places in 1593. In 1596, Dutch mathematician Ludolph van Ceulen reached 20 digits, a record he later increased to 35 digits (as a result, was called the "Ludolphian number" in Germany until the early 20th century). Dutch scientist Willebrord Snellius reached 34 digits in 1621, and Austrian astronomer Christoph Grienberger arrived at 38 digits in 1630 using 10⁴⁰ sides. His evaluation was 3.14159 26535 89793 23846 26433 83279 50288 4196 < < 3.14159 26535 89793 23846 26433 83279 50288 4199. Christiaan Huygens was able to arrive at 10 decimal places in 1654 using a slightly different method equivalent to Richardson extrapolation.

---

Infinite series The calculation of was revolutionized by the development of infinite series techniques in the 16th and 17th centuries. An infinite series is the sum of the terms of an infinite sequence. Infinite series allowed mathematicians to compute with much greater precision than Archimedes and others who used geometrical techniques. Although infinite series were exploited for most notably by European mathematicians such as James Gregory and Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz, the approach also appeared in the Kerala school sometime in the 14th or 15th century. Around 1500, an infinite series that could be used to compute , written in the form of Sanskrit verse, was presented in Tantrasamgraha by Nilakantha Somayaji. The series are presented without proof, but proofs are presented in the later work Yuktibhāṣā, published around 1530. Several infinite series are described, including series for sine (which Nilakantha attributes to Madhava of Sangamagrama), cosine, and arctangent which are now sometimes referred to as Madhava series. The series for arctangent is sometimes called Gregory's series or the Gregory–Leibniz series. Madhava used infinite series to estimate to 11 digits around 1400.

George Gheverghese Joseph (1991). 9780691135267, Princeton University Press. . ISBN 9780691135267

In 1593, François Viète published what is now known as Viète's formula, an infinite product (rather than an infinite sum, which is more typically used in calculations):.

$$\backslash frac2\backslash pi\; =\; \backslash frac\{\backslash sqrt2\}2\; \backslash cdot\; \backslash frac\{\backslash sqrt\{2+\backslash sqrt2\}\}2\; \backslash cdot\; \backslash frac\{\backslash sqrt\{2+\backslash sqrt\{2+\backslash sqrt2\}\}\}2\; \backslash cdots$$

In 1655, John Wallis published what is now known as the Wallis product, also an infinite product:

$$\backslash frac\{\backslash pi\}\{2\}\; =\; \backslash Big(\backslash frac\{2\}\{1\}\; \backslash cdot\; \backslash frac\{2\}\{3\}\backslash Big)\; \backslash cdot\; \backslash Big(\backslash frac\{4\}\{3\}\; \backslash cdot\; \backslash frac\{4\}\{5\}\backslash Big)\; \backslash cdot\; \backslash Big(\backslash frac\{6\}\{5\}\; \backslash cdot\; \backslash frac\{6\}\{7\}\backslash Big)\; \backslash cdot\; \backslash Big(\backslash frac\{8\}\{7\}\; \backslash cdot\; \backslash frac\{8\}\{9\}\backslash Big)\; \backslash cdots$$

used infinite series to compute to 15 digits, later writing "I am ashamed to tell you to how many figures I carried these computations".]] In the 1660s, the English scientist Isaac Newton and German mathematician Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz discovered calculus, which led to the development of many infinite series for approximating . Newton himself used an arcsine series to compute a 15-digit approximation of in 1665 or 1666, writing, "I am ashamed to tell you to how many figures I carried these computations, having no other business at the time.". Newton quoted by Arndt.

In 1671, James Gregory, and independently, Leibniz in 1673, discovered the Taylor series expansion for arctangent:

$$\backslash arctan\; z\; =\; z\; -\; \backslash frac\; \{z^3\}\; \{3\}\; +\backslash frac\; \{z^5\}\; \{5\}\; -\backslash frac\; \{z^7\}\; \{7\}\; +\backslash cdots$$

This series, sometimes called the Gregory–Leibniz series, equals $\backslash frac\{\backslash pi\}\{4\}$ when evaluated with $z=1$. But for $z=1$, it converges impractically slowly (that is, approaches the answer very gradually), taking about ten times as many terms to calculate each additional digit.

In 1699, English mathematician Abraham Sharp used the Gregory–Leibniz series for $z=\backslash frac\{1\}\{\backslash sqrt\{3\}\}$ to compute to 71 digits, breaking the previous record of 39 digits, which was set with a polygonal algorithm.

In 1706, John Machin used the Gregory–Leibniz series to produce an algorithm that converged much faster: -,\, \&c. =. This Series (among others for the same purpose, and drawn from the same Principle) I receiv'd from the Excellent Analyst, and my much Esteem'd Friend Mr. John Machin; and by means thereof, Van Ceulens Number, or that in Art. 64.38. may be Examin'd with all desireable Ease and Dispatch. }} Reprinted in

$$\backslash frac\{\backslash pi\}\{4\}\; =\; 4\; \backslash arctan\; \backslash frac\{1\}\{5\}\; -\; \backslash arctan\; \backslash frac\{1\}\{239\}.$$

Machin reached 100 digits of with this formula. Other mathematicians created variants, now known as Machin-like formulae, that were used to set several successive records for calculating digits of .

Isaac Newton accelerated the convergence of the Gregory–Leibniz series in 1684 (in an unpublished work; others independently discovered the result):

$$\backslash arctan\; x\; =\; \backslash frac\{x\}\{1\; +\; x^2\}\; +\; \backslash frac23\backslash frac\{x^3\}\{(1\; +\; x^2)^2\}\; +\; \backslash frac\{2\backslash cdot\; 4\}\{3\; \backslash cdot\; 5\}\backslash frac\{x^5\}\{(1\; +\; x^2)^3\}\; +\; \backslash cdots$$

Leonhard Euler popularized this series in his 1755 differential calculus textbook, and later used it with Machin-like formulae, including $\backslash tfrac\backslash pi4\; =\; 5\backslash arctan\backslash tfrac17\; +\; 2\backslash arctan\backslash tfrac\{3\}\{79\},$ with which he computed 20 digits of in one hour. Reprinted in

Machin-like formulae remained the best-known method for calculating well into the age of computers, and were used to set records for 250 years, culminating in a 620-digit approximation in 1946 by Daniel Ferguson – the best approximation achieved without the aid of a calculating device.

In 1844, a record was set by Zacharias Dase, who employed a Machin-like formula to calculate 200 decimals of in his head at the behest of German mathematician Carl Friedrich Gauss.

In 1853, British mathematician William Shanks calculated to 607 digits, but made a mistake in the 528th digit, rendering all subsequent digits incorrect. Though he calculated an additional 100 digits in 1873, bringing the total up to 707, his previous mistake rendered all the new digits incorrect as well.

---

Rate of convergence Some infinite series for converge faster than others. Given the choice of two infinite series for , mathematicians will generally use the one that converges more rapidly because faster convergence reduces the amount of computation needed to calculate to any given accuracy. . A simple infinite series for is the Gregory–Leibniz series:

$$\backslash pi\; =\; \backslash frac\{4\}\{1\}\; -\; \backslash frac\{4\}\{3\}\; +\; \backslash frac\{4\}\{5\}\; -\; \backslash frac\{4\}\{7\}\; +\; \backslash frac\{4\}\{9\}\; -\; \backslash frac\{4\}\{11\}\; +\; \backslash frac\{4\}\{13\}\; -\; \backslash cdots$$

As individual terms of this infinite series are added to the sum, the total gradually gets closer to , and – with a sufficient number of terms – can get as close to as desired. It converges quite slowly, though – after 500,000 terms, it produces only five correct decimal digits of .

An infinite series for (published by Nilakantha in the 15th century) that converges more rapidly than the Gregory–Leibniz series is:

$$\backslash pi\; =\; 3\; +\; \backslash frac\{4\}\{2\backslash times3\backslash times4\}\; -\; \backslash frac\{4\}\{4\backslash times5\backslash times6\}\; +\; \backslash frac\{4\}\{6\backslash times7\backslash times8\}\; -\; \backslash frac\{4\}\{8\backslash times9\backslash times10\}\; +\; \backslash cdots$$

The following table compares the convergence rates of these two series:

$\backslash pi\; =\; \backslash frac\{4\}\{1\}\; -\; \backslash frac\{4\}\{3\}\; +\; \backslash frac\{4\}\{5\}\; -\; \backslash frac\{4\}\{7\}\; +\; \backslash frac\{4\}\{9\}\; -\; \backslash frac\{4\}\{11\}\; +\; \backslash frac\{4\}\{13\}\; +\; \backslash cdots$	4.0000||2.6666 ... ||3.4666 ... ||2.8952 ... ||3.3396 ... ||rowspan=2 = 3.1415 ...
$\backslash pi\; =\; +\; \backslash frac\{2\backslash times3\backslash times4\}\; -\; \backslash frac\{4\backslash times5\backslash times6\}\; +\; \backslash frac\{6\backslash times7\backslash times8\}\; -\; \backslash cdots$	3.0000||3.1666 ... ||3.1333 ... ||3.1452 ... |3.1396 ...

After five terms, the sum of the Gregory–Leibniz series is within 0.2 of the correct value of , whereas the sum of Nilakantha's series is within 0.002 of the correct value. Nilakantha's series converges faster and is more useful for computing digits of . Series that converge even faster include Machin's series and Chudnovsky's series, the latter producing 14 correct decimal digits per term.

---

Irrationality and transcendence Not all mathematical advances relating to were aimed at increasing the accuracy of approximations. When Euler solved the Basel problem in 1735, finding the exact value of the sum of the reciprocal squares, he established a connection between and the that later contributed to the development and study of the Riemann zeta function:

$$\backslash frac\{\backslash pi^2\}\{6\}\; =\; \backslash frac\{1\}\{1^2\}\; +\; \backslash frac\{1\}\{2^2\}\; +\; \backslash frac\{1\}\{3^2\}\; +\; \backslash frac\{1\}\{4^2\}\; +\; \backslash cdots$$

Swiss scientist Johann Heinrich Lambert in 1768 proved that is irrational, meaning it is not equal to the quotient of any two integers. Lambert's proof exploited a continued-fraction representation of the tangent function.Lambert, Johann, "Mémoire sur quelques propriétés remarquables des quantités transcendantes circulaires et logarithmiques", reprinted in . French mathematician Adrien-Marie Legendre proved in 1794 that ² is also irrational. In 1882, German mathematician Ferdinand von Lindemann proved that is transcendental, confirming a conjecture made by both Legendre and Euler.Hardy and Wright 1938 and 2000: 177 footnote § 11.13–14 references Lindemann's proof as appearing at Math. Ann. 20 (1882), 213–225. Hardy and Wright states that "the proofs were afterwards modified and simplified by Hilbert, Hurwitz, and other writers".cf Hardy and Wright 1938 and 2000:177 footnote § 11.13–14. The proofs that e and π are transcendental can be found on pp. 170–176. They cite two sources of the proofs at Landau 1927 or Perron 1910; see the "List of Books" at pp. 417–419 for full citations.

---

Adoption of the symbol The first recorded use of the symbol in circle geometry is in William Oughtred Clavis Mathematicae (1648), (English translation: ) where the Greek letters and δ were combined into the fraction for denoting the ratios semiperimeter to semidiameter and perimeter to diameter, that is, what is presently denoted as .

Florian Cajori (2025). 9781602067141, Cosimo, Inc.. . ISBN 9781602067141

David E. Smith (2025). 9780486204307, Courier Corporation. . ISBN 9780486204307

(Before then, mathematicians sometimes used letters such as c or p instead.) Isaac Barrow likewise used the same notation, while Gregory instead used $\backslash frac\; \backslash pi\; \backslash rho$ to represent .

The earliest known use of the Greek letter alone to represent the ratio of a circle's circumference to its diameter was by Welsh mathematician William Jones in his 1706 work italic=unset; or, a New Introduction to the Mathematics. The Greek letter appears on p. 243 in the phrase "$\backslash tfrac12$ Periphery ()", calculated for a circle with radius one. However, Jones writes that his equations for are from the "ready pen of the truly ingenious Mr. John Machin", leading to speculation that Machin may have employed the Greek letter before Jones. Jones' notation was not immediately adopted by other mathematicians, with the fraction notation still being used as late as 1767.

Euler started using the single-letter form beginning with his 1727 Essay Explaining the Properties of Air, though he used , the ratio of periphery to radius, in this and some later writing. English translation by Ian Bruce : " is taken for the ratio of the radius to the periphery note" English translation in Euler first used in his 1736 work Mechanica, English translation by Ian Bruce : "Let denote the ratio of the diameter to the circumference" and continued in his widely read 1748 work italic=yes (he wrote: "for the sake of brevity we will write this number as ; thus is equal to half the circumference of a circle of radius "). Because Euler corresponded heavily with other mathematicians in Europe, the use of the Greek letter spread rapidly, and the practice was universally adopted thereafter in the Western world, though the definition still varied between and as late as 1761.

---

Modern quest for more digits

---

Motives for computing π For most numerical calculations involving , a handful of digits provide sufficient precision. According to Jörg Arndt and Christoph Haenel, thirty-nine digits are sufficient to perform most cosmological calculations, because that is the accuracy necessary to calculate the circumference of the observable universe with a precision of one atom. Accounting for additional digits needed to compensate for computational , Arndt concludes that a few hundred digits would suffice for any scientific application. Despite this, people have worked strenuously to compute to thousands and millions of digits. This effort may be partly ascribed to the human compulsion to break records, and such achievements with often make headlines around the world. They also have practical benefits, such as testing , testing numerical analysis algorithms (including high-precision multiplication algorithms) and within pure mathematics itself, providing data for evaluating the randomness of the digits of .

---

Computer era and iterative algorithms The development of computers in the mid-20th century again revolutionized the hunt for digits of . Mathematicians John Wrench and Levi Smith reached 1,120 digits in 1949 using a desk calculator. Using an inverse tangent (arctan) infinite series, a team led by George Reitwiesner and John von Neumann that same year achieved 2,037 digits with a calculation that took 70 hours of computer time on the ENIAC computer. The record, always relying on an arctan series, was broken repeatedly (3089 digits in 1955, 7,480 digits in 1957; 10,000 digits in 1958; 100,000 digits in 1961) until 1 million digits was reached in 1973.

Two additional developments around 1980 once again accelerated the ability to compute . First, the discovery of new iterative algorithms for computing , which were much faster than the infinite series; and second, the invention of fast multiplication algorithms that could multiply large numbers very rapidly. Such algorithms are particularly important in modern computations because most of the computer's time is devoted to multiplication. They include the Karatsuba algorithm, Toom–Cook multiplication, and Fourier transform-based methods.

The iterative algorithms were independently published in 1975–1976 by physicist Eugene Salamin and scientist Richard Brent. These avoid reliance on infinite series. An iterative algorithm repeats a specific calculation, each iteration using the outputs from prior steps as its inputs, and produces a result in each step that converges to the desired value. The approach was actually invented over 160 years earlier by Carl Friedrich Gauss, in what is now termed the AGM method (AGM method) or Gauss–Legendre algorithm. As modified by Salamin and Brent, it is also referred to as the Brent–Salamin algorithm.

The iterative algorithms were widely used after 1980 because they are faster than infinite series algorithms: whereas infinite series typically increase the number of correct digits additively in successive terms, iterative algorithms generally multiply the number of correct digits at each step. For example, the Brent–Salamin algorithm doubles the number of digits in each iteration. In 1984, brothers Jonathan Borwein and Peter Borwein produced an iterative algorithm that quadruples the number of digits in each step; and in 1987, one that increases the number of digits five times in each step. (5 times); pp. 113–114 (4 times). For details of algorithms, see

Iterative methods were used by Japanese mathematician Yasumasa Kanada to set several records for computing between 1995 and 2002. This rapid convergence comes at a price: the iterative algorithms require significantly more memory than infinite series.

---

Rapidly convergent series Modern calculators do not use iterative algorithms exclusively. New infinite series were discovered in the 1980s and 1990s that are as fast as iterative algorithms, yet are simpler and less memory intensive. The fast iterative algorithms were anticipated in 1914, when Indian mathematician Srinivasa Ramanujan published dozens of innovative new formulae for , remarkable for their elegance, mathematical depth and rapid convergence. One of his formulae, based on , is

$$\backslash frac\{1\}\{\backslash pi\}\; =\; \backslash frac\{2\; \backslash sqrt\; 2\}\{9801\}\; \backslash sum\_\{k=0\}^\backslash infty\; \backslash frac\{(4k)!(1103+26390k)\}\{k!^4\backslash left(396^\{4k\}\backslash right)\}.$$

This series converges much more rapidly than most arctan series, including Machin's formula.Bill Gosper was the first to use it for advances in the calculation of , setting a record of 17 million digits in 1985. Ramanujan's formulae anticipated the modern algorithms developed by the Borwein brothers (Jonathan Borwein and Peter Borwein) and the Chudnovsky brothers. The Chudnovsky formula developed in 1987 is

$$\backslash frac\{1\}\{\backslash pi\}\; =\; \backslash frac\{\backslash sqrt\{10005\}\}\{4270934400\}\; \backslash sum\_\{k=0\}^\backslash infty\; \backslash frac\{(6k)!\; (13591409\; +\; 545140134k)\}\{(3k)!\backslash ,k!^3\; (-640320)^\{3k\}\}.$$

It produces about 14 digits of per term and has been used for several record-setting calculations, including the first to surpass 1 billion (10⁹) digits in 1989 by the Chudnovsky brothers, 10 trillion (10¹³) digits in 2011 by Alexander Yee and Shigeru Kondo,

and 100 trillion digits by Emma Haruka Iwao in 2022. For similar formulae, see also the Ramanujan–Sato series.

In 2006, mathematician Simon Plouffe used the PSLQ integer relation algorithmPSLQ means Partial Sum of Least Squares. to generate several new formulae for , conforming to the following template:

$$\backslash pi^k\; =\; \backslash sum\_\{n=1\}^\backslash infty\; \backslash frac\{1\}\{n^k\}\; \backslash left(\backslash frac\{a\}\{q^n-1\}\; +\; \backslash frac\{b\}\{q^\{2n\}-1\}\; +\; \backslash frac\{c\}\{q^\{4n\}-1\}\backslash right),$$

where is (Gelfond's constant), is an odd number, and are certain rational numbers that Plouffe computed.

---

Monte Carlo methods Monte Carlo methods, which evaluate the results of multiple random trials, can be used to create approximations of . Buffon's needle is one such technique: If a needle of length is dropped times on a surface on which parallel lines are drawn units apart, and if of those times it comes to rest crossing a line ( > 0), then one may approximate based on the counts:

$$\backslash pi\; \backslash approx\; \backslash frac\{2n\backslash ell\}\{xt\}.$$

Another Monte Carlo method for computing is to draw a circle inscribed in a square, and randomly place dots in the square. The ratio of dots inside the circle to the total number of dots will approximately equal .. .

Another way to calculate using probability is to start with a random walk, generated by a sequence of (fair) coin tosses: independent such that with equal probabilities. The associated random walk is

$$W\_n\; =\; \backslash sum\_\{k=1\}^n\; X\_k$$

so that, for each , is drawn from a shifted and scaled binomial distribution. As varies, defines a (discrete) stochastic process. Then can be calculated by

$$\backslash pi\; =\; \backslash lim\_\{n\backslash to\backslash infty\}\; \backslash frac\{2n\}\{E|W\_n|^2\}.$$

This Monte Carlo method is independent of any relation to circles, and is a consequence of the central limit theorem, discussed below.

These Monte Carlo methods for approximating are very slow compared to other methods, and do not provide any information on the exact number of digits that are obtained. Thus they are never used to approximate when speed or accuracy is desired...

---

Spigot algorithms Two algorithms were discovered in 1995 that opened up new avenues of research into . They are called because, like water dripping from a spigot, they produce single digits of that are not reused after they are calculated. This is in contrast to infinite series or iterative algorithms, which retain and use all intermediate digits until the final result is produced.

Mathematicians Stan Wagon and Stanley Rabinowitz produced a simple spigot algorithm in 1995. Its speed is comparable to arctan algorithms, but not as fast as iterative algorithms.

Another spigot algorithm, the BBP digit extraction algorithm, was discovered in 1995 by Simon Plouffe: $$\backslash pi\; =\; \backslash sum\_\{k=0\}^\backslash infty\; \backslash frac\{1\}\{16^k\}\; \backslash left(\; \backslash frac\{4\}\{8k\; +\; 1\}\; -\; \backslash frac\{2\}\{8k\; +\; 4\}\; -\; \backslash frac\{1\}\{8k\; +\; 5\}\; -\; \backslash frac\{1\}\{8k\; +\; 6\}\backslash right).$$

This formula, unlike others before it, can produce any individual hexadecimal digit of without calculating all the preceding digits. Individual binary digits may be extracted from individual hexadecimal digits, and octal digits can be extracted from one or two hexadecimal digits. An important application of digit extraction algorithms is to validate new claims of record computations: After a new record is claimed, the decimal result is converted to hexadecimal, and then a digit extraction algorithm is used to calculate several randomly selected hexadecimal digits near the end; if they match, this provides a measure of confidence that the entire computation is correct.

Between 1998 and 2000, the distributed computing project PiHex used Bellard's formula (a modification of the BBP algorithm) to compute the quadrillionth (10¹⁵th) bit of , which turned out to be 0.. Bellards formula in: In September 2010, a Yahoo! employee used the company's Apache Hadoop application on one thousand computers over a 23-day period to compute 256 of at the two-quadrillionth (2×10¹⁵th) bit, which also happens to be zero.

In 2022, Plouffe found a base-10 algorithm for calculating digits of .

---

Role and characterizations in mathematics Because is closely related to the circle, it is found in many formulae from the fields of geometry and trigonometry, particularly those concerning circles, spheres, or ellipses. Other branches of science, such as statistics, physics, Fourier analysis, and number theory, also include in some of their important formulae.

---

Geometry and trigonometry

appears in formulae for areas and volumes of geometrical shapes based on circles, such as [[ellipse]]s, [[sphere]]s, cones, and [[tori|torus]].  Below are some of the more common formulae that involve ..
     

• The circumference of a circle with radius is .
• The area of a circle with radius is .
• The area of an ellipse with semi-major axis and semi-minor axis is .
• The volume of a sphere with radius is .
• The surface area of a sphere with radius is .

Some of the formulae above are special cases of the volume of the N-ball and the surface area of its boundary, the n-sphere, given below.

Apart from circles, there are other curves of constant width. By Barbier's theorem, every curve of constant width has perimeter times its width. The Reuleaux triangle (formed by the intersection of three circles with the sides of an equilateral triangle as their radii) has the smallest possible area for its width and the circle the largest. There also exist non-circular Smoothness and even of constant width.

See Barbier's theorem, Corollary 5.1.1, p. 98; Reuleaux triangles, pp. 3, 10; smooth curves such as an analytic curve due to Rabinowitz, § 5.3.3, pp. 111–112.

Integral that describe circumference, area, or volume of shapes generated by circles typically have values that involve . For example, an integral that specifies half the area of a circle of radius one is given by:

$$\backslash int\_\{-1\}^1\; \backslash sqrt\{1-x^2\}\backslash ,dx\; =\; \backslash frac\{\backslash pi\}\{2\}.$$

In that integral, the function $\backslash sqrt\{1-x^2\}$ represents the height over the $x$-axis of a semicircle (the square root is a consequence of the Pythagorean theorem), and the integral computes the area below the semicircle. The existence of such integrals makes an algebraic period.

---

Units of angle and cosine functions repeat with period 2.|left]]The trigonometric functions rely on angles, and mathematicians generally use as units of measurement. plays an important role in angles measured in radians, which are defined so that a complete circle spans an angle of 2 radians. The angle measure of 180° is equal to radians, and .

Common trigonometric functions have periods that are multiples of ; for example, sine and cosine have period 2, so for any angle and any integer , $$\backslash sin\backslash theta\; =\; \backslash sin\backslash left(\backslash theta\; +\; 2\backslash pi\; k\; \backslash right)\; \backslash text\{\; and\; \}\; \backslash cos\backslash theta\; =\; \backslash cos\backslash left(\backslash theta\; +\; 2\backslash pi\; k\; \backslash right).$$

---

Eigenvalues Many of the appearances of in the formulae of mathematics and the sciences have to do with its close relationship with geometry. However, also appears in many natural situations having apparently nothing to do with geometry.

In many applications, it plays a distinguished role as an eigenvalue. For example, an idealized vibrating string can be modelled as the graph of a function on the unit interval , with fixed ends . The modes of vibration of the string are solutions of the differential equation $f$(x) + \lambda f(x) = 0, or $f$(t) = -\lambda f(x). Thus is an eigenvalue of the second derivative operator $f\; \backslash mapsto\; f\text{'}\text{'}$, and is constrained by Sturm–Liouville theory to take on only certain specific values. It must be positive, since the operator is negative definite, so it is convenient to write , where is called the wavenumber. Then satisfies the boundary conditions and the differential equation with .

The value is, in fact, the least such value of the wavenumber, and is associated with the fundamental mode of vibration of the string. One way to show this is by estimating the energy, which satisfies Wirtinger's inequality: for a function $f\; :\; 0,\; \backslash to\; \backslash Complex$ with and , both square integrable, we have:

$$\backslash pi^2\backslash int\_0^1|f(x)|^2\backslash ,dx\backslash le\; \backslash int\_0^1|f\text{'}(x)|^2\backslash ,dx,$$

with equality precisely when is a multiple of . Here appears as an optimal constant in Wirtinger's inequality, and it follows that it is the smallest wavenumber, using the variational characterization of the eigenvalue. As a consequence, is the smallest singular value of the derivative operator on the space of functions on vanishing at both endpoints (the Sobolev space $H^1\_00,1$).

---

Inequalities The number serves appears in similar eigenvalue problems in higher-dimensional analysis. As mentioned above, it can be characterized via its role as the best constant in the isoperimetric inequality: the area enclosed by a plane Jordan curve of perimeter satisfies the inequality

$$4\backslash pi\; A\backslash le\; P^2,$$

and equality is clearly achieved for the circle, since in that case and .

Ultimately, as a consequence of the isoperimetric inequality, appears in the optimal constant for the critical Sobolev inequality in n dimensions, which thus characterizes the role of in many physical phenomena as well, for example those of classical potential theory. In two dimensions, the critical Sobolev inequality is

$$2\backslash pi\backslash |f\backslash |\_2\; \backslash le\; \backslash |\backslash nabla\; f\backslash |\_1$$

for f a smooth function with compact support in , $\backslash nabla\; f$ is the gradient of f, and $\backslash |f\backslash |\_2$ and $\backslash |\backslash nabla\; f\backslash |\_1$ refer respectively to the Lp space. The Sobolev inequality is equivalent to the isoperimetric inequality (in any dimension), with the same best constants.

Wirtinger's inequality also generalizes to higher-dimensional Poincaré inequalities that provide best constants for the Dirichlet energy of an n-dimensional membrane. Specifically, is the greatest constant such that

$$$$

for all convex set subsets of of diameter 1, and square-integrable functions u on of mean zero. Just as Wirtinger's inequality is the variational form of the Dirichlet eigenvalue problem in one dimension, the Poincaré inequality is the variational form of the Neumann problem eigenvalue problem, in any dimension.

---

Fourier transform and Heisenberg uncertainty principle The constant also appears as a critical spectral parameter in the Fourier transform. This is the integral transform, that takes a complex-valued integrable function on the real line to the function defined as:

$$\backslash hat\{f\}(\backslash xi)\; =\; \backslash int\_\{-\backslash infty\}^\backslash infty\; f(x)\; e^\{-2\backslash pi\; i\; x\backslash xi\}\backslash ,dx.$$

Although there are several different conventions for the Fourier transform and its inverse, any such convention must involve somewhere. The above is the most canonical definition, however, giving the unique unitary operator on that is also an algebra homomorphism of to .

The Heisenberg uncertainty principle also contains the number . The uncertainty principle gives a sharp lower bound on the extent to which it is possible to localize a function both in space and in frequency: with our conventions for the Fourier transform,

$$\backslash left(\backslash int\_\{-\backslash infty\}^\backslash infty\; x^2|f(x)|^2\backslash ,dx\backslash right)\; \backslash left(\backslash int\_\{-\backslash infty\}^\backslash infty\; \backslash xi^2|\backslash hat\{f\}(\backslash xi)|^2\backslash ,d\backslash xi\backslash right)$$

\ge
     

\left(\frac{1}{4\pi}\int_{-\infty}^\infty |f(x)|^2\,dx\right)^2.

The physical consequence, about the uncertainty in simultaneous position and momentum observations of a quantum mechanical system, is discussed below. The appearance of in the formulae of Fourier analysis is ultimately a consequence of the Stone–von Neumann theorem, asserting the uniqueness of the Schrödinger representation of the Heisenberg group.

---

Gaussian integrals The fields of probability and statistics frequently use the normal distribution as a simple model for complex phenomena; for example, scientists generally assume that the observational error in most experiments follows a normal distribution.Feller, W. An Introduction to Probability Theory and Its Applications, Vol. 1, Wiley, 1968, pp. 174–190. The Gaussian function, which is the probability density function of the normal distribution with mean and standard deviation , naturally contains :.

$$f(x)\; =\; \{1\; \backslash over\; \backslash sigma\backslash sqrt\{2\backslash pi\}\; \}\backslash ,e^\{-(x-\backslash mu\; )^2/(2\backslash sigma^2)\}.$$

The factor of $\backslash tfrac\{1\}\{\backslash sqrt\{2\backslash pi\}\}$ makes the area under the graph of equal to one, as is required for a probability distribution. This follows from a change of variables in the Gaussian integral:

$$\backslash int\_\{-\backslash infty\}^\backslash infty\; e^\{-u^2\}\; \backslash ,\; du=\backslash sqrt\{\backslash pi\}$$

which says that the area under the basic bell curve in the figure is equal to the square root of .

The central limit theorem explains the central role of normal distributions, and thus of , in probability and statistics. This theorem is ultimately connected with the spectral characterization of as the eigenvalue associated with the Heisenberg uncertainty principle, and the fact that equality holds in the uncertainty principle only for the Gaussian function. Equivalently, is the unique constant making the Gaussian normal distribution equal to its own Fourier transform.; Theorem 1.13. Indeed, according to , the "whole business" of establishing the fundamental theorems of Fourier analysis reduces to the Gaussian integral.

---

Topology The constant appears in the Gauss–Bonnet formula which relates the differential geometry of surfaces to their topology. Specifically, if a compact space surface has Gauss curvature K, then

$$\backslash int\_\backslash Sigma\; K\backslash ,dA\; =\; 2\backslash pi\; \backslash chi(\backslash Sigma)$$

where is the Euler characteristic, which is an integer.; Chapter 6. An example is the surface area of a sphere S of curvature 1 (so that its radius of curvature, which coincides with its radius, is also 1.) The Euler characteristic of a sphere can be computed from its and is found to be equal to two. Thus we have

$$A(S)\; =\; \backslash int\_S\; 1\backslash ,dA\; =\; 2\backslash pi\backslash cdot\; 2\; =\; 4\backslash pi$$

reproducing the formula for the surface area of a sphere of radius 1.

The constant appears in many other integral formulae in topology, in particular, those involving characteristic classes via the Chern–Weil homomorphism.; Chapter XII Characteristic classes

---

Cauchy's integral formula One of the key tools in complex analysis is contour integration of a function over a positively oriented (rectifiable) Jordan curve . A form of Cauchy's integral formula states that if a point is interior to , then

$$\backslash oint\_\backslash gamma\; \backslash frac\{dz\}\{z-z\_0\}\; =\; 2\backslash pi\; i.$$

Although the curve is not a circle, and hence does not have any obvious connection to the constant , a standard proof of this result uses Morera's theorem, which implies that the integral is invariant under homotopy of the curve, so that it can be deformed to a circle and then integrated explicitly in polar coordinates. More generally, it is true that if a rectifiable closed curve does not contain , then the above integral is times the winding number of the curve.

The general form of Cauchy's integral formula establishes the relationship between the values of a complex analytic function on the Jordan curve and the value of at any interior point of :

$$\backslash oint\_\backslash gamma\; \{\; f(z)\; \backslash over\; z-z\_0\; \}\backslash ,dz\; =\; 2\backslash pi\; i\; f\; (z\_\{0\})$$

provided is analytic in the region enclosed by and extends continuously to . Cauchy's integral formula is a special case of the residue theorem, that if is a meromorphic function the region enclosed by and is continuous in a neighbourhood of , then

$$\backslash oint\_\backslash gamma\; g(z)\backslash ,\; dz\; =2\backslash pi\; i\; \backslash sum\; \backslash operatorname\{Res\}(\; g,\; a\_k\; )$$

where the sum is of the residues at the poles of .

---

Vector calculus and physics The constant is ubiquitous in vector calculus and potential theory, for example in Coulomb's law,

H. M. Schey (1996). 9780393969979, W. W. Norton. ISBN 9780393969979

Gauss's law, Maxwell's equations, and even the Einstein field equations.

Adrian Yeo (2025). 9789812700780, World Scientific Pub.. ISBN 9789812700780

Jürgen Ehlers (2025). 9783540670735, Springer. ISBN 9783540670735

Perhaps the simplest example of this is the two-dimensional Newtonian potential, representing the potential of a point source at the origin, whose associated field has unit outward flux through any smooth and oriented closed surface enclosing the source:

$$\backslash Phi(\backslash mathbf\; x)\; =\; \backslash frac\{1\}\{2\backslash pi\}\backslash log|\backslash mathbf\; x|.$$

The factor of $1/2\backslash pi$ is necessary to ensure that $\backslash Phi$ is the fundamental solution of the Poisson equation in $\backslash mathbb\; R^2$:

$$\backslash Delta\backslash Phi\; =\; \backslash delta$$

where $\backslash delta$ is the Dirac delta function.

In higher dimensions, factors of are present because of a normalization by the n-dimensional volume of the unit n sphere. For example, in three dimensions, the Newtonian potential is:

$$\backslash Phi(\backslash mathbf\; x)\; =\; -\backslash frac\{1\}\{4\backslash pi|\backslash mathbf\; x|\},$$

which has the 2-dimensional volume (i.e., the area) of the unit 2-sphere in the denominator.

---

Total curvature In the differential geometry of curves, the total curvature of a smooth plane curve is the amount it turns anticlockwise, in radians, from start to finish, computed as the integral of signed curvature with respect to arc length:

$$\backslash int\_a^b\; k(s)\backslash ,ds$$

For a closed curve, this quantity is equal to for an integer called the turning number or index of the curve. is the winding number about the origin of the hodograph of the curve parametrized by arclength, a new curve lying on the unit circle, described by the normalized tangent vector at each point on the original curve. Equivalently, is the degree of the map taking each point on the curve to the corresponding point on the hodograph, analogous to the Gauss map for surfaces.

---

The gamma function and Stirling's approximation The factorial function $n!$ is the product of all of the positive integers through . The gamma function extends the concept of factorial (normally defined only for non-negative integers) to all complex numbers, except the negative real integers, with the identity $\backslash Gamma(n)=(n-1)!$. When the gamma function is evaluated at half-integers, the result contains . For example, $\backslash Gamma\backslash bigl(\backslash tfrac12\backslash bigr)\; =\; \backslash sqrt\{\backslash pi\}$ and $\backslash Gamma\backslash bigl(\backslash tfrac52\backslash bigr)\; =\; \backslash tfrac\; 34\; \backslash sqrt\{\backslash pi\}$..

The gamma function is defined by its Weierstrass product development:

$$\backslash Gamma(z)\; =\; \backslash frac\{e^\{-\backslash gamma\; z\}\}\{z\}\backslash prod\_\{n=1\}^\backslash infty\; \backslash frac\{e^\{z/n\}\}\{1+z/n\}$$

where is the Euler–Mascheroni constant. Evaluated at and squared, the equation reduces to the Wallis product formula. The gamma function is also connected to the Riemann zeta function and identities for the functional determinant, in which the constant plays an important role.

The gamma function is used to calculate the volume of the n-ball of radius r in Euclidean n-dimensional space, and the surface area of its boundary, the n-sphere:

$$V\_n(r)\; =\; \backslash frac\{\backslash pi^\{n/2\}\}\{\backslash Gamma\backslash bigl(\backslash frac\{n\}\{2\}+1\backslash bigr)\}r^n,$$

$$S\_\{n-1\}(r)\; =\; \backslash frac\{n\backslash pi^\{n/2\}\}\{\backslash Gamma\backslash bigl(\backslash tfrac\{n\}\{2\}+1\backslash bigr)\}r^\{n-1\}.$$

Further, it follows from the functional equation that

$$2\backslash pi\; r\; =\; \backslash frac\{S\_\{n+1\}(r)\}\{V\_n(r)\}.$$

The gamma function can be used to create a simple approximation to the factorial function for large : $n!\; \backslash sim\; \backslash sqrt\{2\; \backslash pi\; n\}\; \backslash left(\backslash frac\{n\}\{e\}\backslash right)^n$ which is known as Stirling's approximation.. Equivalently,

$$\backslash pi\; =\; \backslash lim\_\{n\backslash to\backslash infty\}\; \backslash frac\{e^\{2n\}n!^2\}\{2\; n^\{2n+1\}\}.$$

As a geometrical application of Stirling's approximation, let denote the simplex in n-dimensional Euclidean space, and denote the simplex having all of its sides scaled up by a factor of . Then

$$\backslash operatorname\{Vol\}((n+1)\backslash Delta\_n)\; =\; \backslash frac\{(n+1)^n\}\{n!\}\; \backslash sim\; \backslash frac\{e^\{n+1\}\}\{\backslash sqrt\{2\backslash pi\; n\}\}.$$

Ehrhart's volume conjecture is that this is the (optimal) upper bound on the volume of a convex body containing only one lattice point.

---

Number theory and Riemann zeta function The Riemann zeta function is used in many areas of mathematics. When evaluated at it can be written as

$$\backslash zeta(2)\; =\; \backslash frac\{1\}\{1^2\}\; +\; \backslash frac\{1\}\{2^2\}\; +\; \backslash frac\{1\}\{3^2\}\; +\; \backslash cdots$$

Finding a simple solution for this infinite series was a famous problem in mathematics called the Basel problem. Leonhard Euler solved it in 1735 when he showed it was equal to . Euler's result leads to the number theory result that the probability of two random numbers being relatively prime (that is, having no shared factors) is equal to .. This theorem was proved by Ernesto Cesàro in 1881. For a more rigorous proof than the intuitive and informal one given here, see

This probability is based on the observation that the probability that any number is divisible by a prime is (for example, every 7th integer is divisible by 7.) Hence the probability that two numbers are both divisible by this prime is , and the probability that at least one of them is not is . For distinct primes, these divisibility events are mutually independent; so the probability that two numbers are relatively prime is given by a product over all primes:

(1988). 9780486257785, Dover. ISBN 9780486257785

This probability can be used in conjunction with a random number generator to approximate using a Monte Carlo approach..

The solution to the Basel problem implies that the geometrically derived quantity is connected in a deep way to the distribution of prime numbers. This is a special case of Weil's conjecture on Tamagawa numbers, which asserts the equality of similar such infinite products of arithmetic quantities, localized at each prime p, and a geometrical quantity: the reciprocal of the volume of a certain locally symmetric space. In the case of the Basel problem, it is the hyperbolic 3-manifold .

The zeta function also satisfies Riemann's functional equation, which involves as well as the gamma function:

$$\backslash zeta(s)\; =\; 2^s\backslash pi^\{s-1\}\backslash \; \backslash sin\backslash left(\backslash frac\{\backslash pi\; s\}\{2\}\backslash right)\backslash \; \backslash Gamma(1-s)\backslash \; \backslash zeta(1-s).$$

Furthermore, the derivative of the zeta function satisfies

$$\backslash exp(-\backslash zeta\text{'}(0))\; =\; \backslash sqrt\{2\backslash pi\}.$$

A consequence is that can be obtained from the functional determinant of the harmonic oscillator. This functional determinant can be computed via a product expansion, and is equivalent to the Wallis product formula. The calculation can be recast in quantum mechanics, specifically the variational approach to the Bohr model.

---

Fourier series The constant also appears naturally in Fourier series of periodic functions. Periodic functions are functions on the group of fractional parts of real numbers. The Fourier decomposition shows that a complex-valued function on can be written as an infinite linear superposition of unitary characters of . That is, continuous group homomorphisms from to the circle group of unit modulus complex numbers. It is a theorem that every character of is one of the complex exponentials $e\_n(x)=\; e^\{2\backslash pi\; i\; n\; x\}$.

There is a unique character on , up to complex conjugation, that is a group isomorphism. Using the Haar measure on the circle group, the constant is half the magnitude of the Radon–Nikodym derivative of this character. The other characters have derivatives whose magnitudes are positive integral multiples of 2. As a result, the constant is the unique number such that the group T, equipped with its Haar measure, is Pontrjagin dual to the lattice of integral multiples of 2. This is a version of the one-dimensional Poisson summation formula.

---

Modular forms and theta functions The constant is connected in a deep way with the theory of and . For example, the Chudnovsky algorithm involves in an essential way the j-invariant of an elliptic curve.

are holomorphic functions in the upper half plane characterized by their transformation properties under the modular group $\backslash mathrm\{SL\}\_2(\backslash mathbb\; Z)$ (or its various subgroups), a lattice in the group $\backslash mathrm\{SL\}\_2(\backslash mathbb\; R)$. An example is the Jacobi theta function

$$\backslash theta(z,\backslash tau)\; =\; \backslash sum\_\{n=-\backslash infty\}^\backslash infty\; e^\{2\backslash pi\; i\; nz\; \backslash \; +\backslash \; \backslash pi\; i\; n^2\backslash tau\}$$

which is a kind of modular form called a Jacobi form.

This is sometimes written in terms of the nome $q=e^\{\backslash pi\; i\; \backslash tau\}$.

The constant is the unique constant making the Jacobi theta function an automorphic form, which means that it transforms in a specific way. Certain identities hold for all automorphic forms. An example is

$$\backslash theta(z+\backslash tau,\backslash tau)\; =\; e^\{-\backslash pi\; i\backslash tau\; -2\backslash pi\; i\; z\}\backslash theta(z,\backslash tau),$$

which implies that transforms as a representation under the discrete Heisenberg group. General modular forms and other also involve , once again because of the Stone–von Neumann theorem.

---

Cauchy distribution and potential theory The Cauchy distribution

$$g(x)=\backslash frac\{1\}\{\backslash pi\}\backslash cdot\backslash frac\{1\}\{x^2+1\}$$

is a probability density function. The total probability is equal to one, owing to the integral:

$$\backslash int\_\{-\backslash infty\; \}^\{\backslash infty\; \}\; \backslash frac\{1\}\{x^2+1\}\; \backslash ,\; dx\; =\; \backslash pi.$$

The Shannon entropy of the Cauchy distribution is equal to , which also involves .

The Cauchy distribution plays an important role in potential theory because it is the simplest Furstenberg measure, the classical Poisson kernel associated with a Brownian motion in a half-plane. Conjugate harmonic functions and so also the Hilbert transform are associated with the asymptotics of the Poisson kernel. The Hilbert transform H is the integral transform given by the Cauchy principal value of the singular integral

$$Hf(t)\; =\; \backslash frac\{1\}\{\backslash pi\}\backslash int\_\{-\backslash infty\}^\backslash infty\; \backslash frac\{f(x)\backslash ,dx\}\{x-t\}.$$

The constant is the unique (positive) normalizing factor such that H defines a linear complex structure on the Hilbert space of square-integrable real-valued functions on the real line.

The Hilbert transform, like the Fourier transform, can be characterized purely in terms of its transformation properties on the Hilbert space : up to a normalization factor, it is the unique bounded linear operator that commutes with positive dilations and anti-commutes with all reflections of the real line.; Chapter II. The constant is the unique normalizing factor that makes this transformation unitary.

---

In the Mandelbrot set An occurrence of in the fractal called the Mandelbrot set was discovered by David Boll in 1991. He examined the behaviour of the Mandelbrot set near the "neck" at . When the number of iterations until divergence for the point is multiplied by , the result approaches as approaches zero. The point at the cusp of the large "valley" on the right side of the Mandelbrot set behaves similarly: the number of iterations until divergence multiplied by the square root of tends to .

Heinz-Otto Peitgen (2025). 9780387202297, Springer. ISBN 9780387202297

---

Outside mathematics

---

Describing physical phenomena Although not a physical constant, appears routinely in equations describing physical phenomena, often because of 's relationship to the circle and to spherical coordinate systems. A simple formula from the field of classical mechanics gives the approximate period of a simple pendulum of length , swinging with a small amplitude ( is the earth's gravitational acceleration):

(1997). 9780471148548, John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 9780471148548

$$T\; \backslash approx\; 2\backslash pi\; \backslash sqrt\backslash frac\{L\}\{g\}.$$

One of the key formulae of quantum mechanics is Heisenberg's uncertainty principle, which shows that the uncertainty in the measurement of a particle's position (Δ) and momentum (Δ) cannot both be arbitrarily small at the same time (where is the Planck constant):

$$\backslash Delta\; x\backslash ,\; \backslash Delta\; p\; \backslash ge\; \backslash frac\{h\}\{4\backslash pi\}.$$

The fact that is approximately equal to 3 plays a role in the relatively long lifetime of orthopositronium. The inverse lifetime to lowest order in the fine-structure constant is

$$\backslash frac\{1\}\{\backslash tau\}\; =\; 2\backslash frac\{\backslash pi^2\; -\; 9\}\{9\backslash pi\}m\_\backslash text\{e\}\backslash alpha^\{6\},$$

where is the mass of the electron.

is present in some structural engineering formulae, such as the [[buckling]] formula derived by Euler, which gives the maximum axial load  that a long, slender column of length , modulus of elasticity , and area moment of inertia  can carry without buckling:
Peter Low (1971). 9780521080897, Cambridge University Press. ISBN 9780521080897
     

$$F\; =\backslash frac\{\backslash pi^2EI\}\{L^2\}.$$

The field of fluid dynamics contains in Stokes' law, which approximates the drag force exerted on small, sphere objects of radius , moving with velocity in a fluid with dynamic viscosity :

$$F\; =6\backslash pi\backslash eta\; Rv.$$

In electromagnetics, the vacuum permeability constant μ₀ appears in Maxwell's equations, which describe the properties of Electric field and Magnetic field fields and electromagnetic radiation. Before 20 May 2019, it was defined as exactly

$$\backslash mu\_0\; =\; 4\; \backslash pi\; \backslash times\; 10^\{-7\}\backslash text\{\; H/m\}\; \backslash approx\; 1.2566370614\; \backslash ldots\; \backslash times\; 10\; ^\{-6\}\; \backslash text\{\; N/A\}^2.$$

---

Memorizing digits Piphilology is the practice of memorizing large numbers of digits of , and world-records are kept by the Guinness World Records. The record for memorizing digits of , certified by Guinness World Records, is 70,000 digits, recited in India by Rajveer Meena in 9 hours and 27 minutes on 21 March 2015. "Most Pi Places Memorized" , Guinness World Records. In 2006, Akira Haraguchi, a retired Japanese engineer, claimed to have recited 100,000 decimal places, but the claim was not verified by Guinness World Records.

One common technique is to memorize a story or poem in which the word lengths represent the digits of : The first word has three letters, the second word has one, the third has four, the fourth has one, the fifth has five, and so on. Such memorization aids are called . An early example of a mnemonic for pi, originally devised by English scientist James Jeans, is "How I want a drink, alcoholic of course, after the heavy lectures involving quantum mechanics." When a poem is used, it is sometimes referred to as a piem.

Poems for memorizing have been composed in several languages in addition to English. Record-setting memorizers typically do not rely on poems, but instead use methods such as remembering number patterns and the method of loci.

A few authors have used the digits of to establish a new form of constrained writing, where the word lengths are required to represent the digits of . The Cadaeic Cadenza contains the first 3835 digits of in this manner, and the full-length book Not a Wake contains 10,000 words, each representing one digit of .

---

In popular culture Perhaps because of the simplicity of its definition and its ubiquitous presence in formulae, has been represented in popular culture more than other mathematical constructs.For instance, Pickover calls π "the most famous mathematical constant of all time", and Peterson writes, "Of all known mathematical constants, however, pi continues to attract the most attention", citing the Parfums Givenchy π perfume, Pi (film), and Pi Day as examples. See:

Clifford A. Pickover (1995). 9780471118572, Wiley & Sons. . ISBN 9780471118572

Ivars Peterson (2025). 9780883855379, Mathematical Association of America. . ISBN 9780883855379

In the Palais de la Découverte (a science museum in Paris) there is a circular room known as the pi room. On its wall are inscribed 707 digits of . The digits are large wooden characters attached to the dome-like ceiling. The digits were based on an 1873 calculation by English mathematician William Shanks, which included an error beginning at the 528th digit. The error was detected in 1946 and corrected in 1949.. .

In Carl Sagan's 1985 novel Contact it is suggested that the creator of the universe buried a message deep within the digits of . This part of the story was omitted from the film adaptation of the novel..

The digits of have also been incorporated into the lyrics of the song "Pi" from the 2005 album Aerial by Kate Bush. In the 1967 episode "Wolf in the Fold", a computer possessed by a demonic entity is contained by being instructed to "Compute to the last digit the value of ".

In the United States, Pi Day falls on 14 March (written 3/14 in the US style), and is popular among students. and its digital representation are often used by self-described "math " for among mathematically and technologically minded groups. A college cheer variously attributed to the Massachusetts Institute of Technology or the Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute includes "3.14159".

Pi Day in 2015 was particularly significant because the date and time 3/14/15 9:26:53 reflected many more digits of pi. In parts of the world where dates are commonly noted in day/month/year format, 22 July represents "Pi Approximation Day", as 22/7 ≈ 3.142857.

Some have proposed replacing by , arguing that , as the number of radians in one turn or the ratio of a circle's circumference to its radius, is more natural than and simplifies many formulae.

This use of has not made its way into mainstream mathematics, but since 2010 this has led to people celebrating Two Pi Day or Tau Day on June 28.

In 1897, an amateur mathematician attempted to persuade the Indiana legislature to pass the Indiana Pi Bill, which described a method to square the circle and contained text that implied various incorrect values for , including 3.2. The bill is notorious as an attempt to establish a value of mathematical constant by legislative fiat. The bill was passed by the Indiana House of Representatives, but rejected by the Senate, and thus it did not become a law.. .

In contemporary internet culture, individuals and organizations frequently pay homage to the number . For instance, the computer scientist Donald Knuth let the version numbers of his program TeX approach . The versions are 3, 3.1, 3.14, and so forth.

---

See also

• List of mathematical constants

---

Explanatory notes

---

Citations

---

Sources

• (1999). 9780521789882, University Press. . ISBN 9780521789882
• (2025). 9783540665724, Springer-Verlag. . ISBN 9783540665724
  English translation by Catriona and David Lischka.
• (1997). 9780387205717, Springer-Verlag. ISBN 9780387205717
• (1991). 9780471543978, Wiley. . ISBN 9780471543978
• (1971). 9783871440953, Verlag Harri Deutsch. ISBN 9783871440953
• (2025). 9781591022008, Prometheus Books. . ISBN 9781591022008
• Reinhold Remmert (2025). 9781461210054, Springer. ISBN 9781461210054

---

Further reading

• David Blatner (1999). 9780802775627, Walker & Company. ISBN 9780802775627
• Jean-Paul Delahaye (1997). 9782902918256, Bibliothèque Pour la Science. ISBN 9782902918256

---

External links

• Demonstration by Lambert (1761) of irrationality of , online and analysed BibNum (PDF).
• Search Engine 2 billion searchable digits of , and
• approximation von π by lattice points and approximation of π with rectangles and trapezoids (interactive illustrations)

Post Comment