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Meditation is a practice in which an individual uses a technique to train attention and awareness and detach from reflexive, "discursive thinking", achieving a mentally clear and emotionally calm and stable state, while not judging the meditation process itself.

Techniques are broadly classified into focused (or concentrative) and open monitoring methods. Focused methods involve attention to specific objects like breath or , while open monitoring includes and awareness of mental events.

Meditation is practiced in numerous religious traditions, though it is also practiced independently from any religious or spiritual influences for its health benefits. The earliest records of meditation ( dhyana) are found in the , and meditation plays a salient role in the contemplative repertoire of , and .

(1982). 9788876524820, Università Gregoriana Editrice. .
Meditation-like techniques are also known in , and , in the context of remembrance of and prayer and devotion to God.

Asian meditative techniques have spread to other cultures where they have found application in non-spiritual contexts, such as business and health. Meditation may significantly reduce stress, , , depression, and pain, and enhance peace, , , and . Research is ongoing to better understand the effects of meditation on health (, , and ) and other areas.

Etymology
The English term meditation is derived from meditacioun, in turn from from a verb , meaning "to think, contemplate, devise, ponder". An universal etymological English dictionary 1773, London, by Nathan Bailey . In the tradition, the use of the term meditatio as part of a formal, stepwise process of meditation goes back to at least the 12th-century monk , The Oblate Life by Gervase Holdaway, 2008 p. 115 before which the Greek word was used for the same purpose.

Apart from its historical usage, the term meditation was introduced as a translation for Eastern spiritual practices, referred to as dhyāna in , , and , which comes from the root dhyai, meaning to contemplate or meditate.The verb root "dhyai" is listed as referring to "contemplate, meditate on" and "dhyāna" is listed as referring to "meditation; religious contemplation" on page 134 of The Greek word actually derives from the same root.

The term "meditation" in English may also refer to practices from Islamic ,

(2025). 9781930409262, Naqshbandi Haqqani Sufi Order of America. .
or other traditions such as Jewish and Christian .

Definitions
Difficulties in defining meditation
No universally accepted definition for meditation
Meditation has proven difficult to define as it covers a wide range of dissimilar practices in different traditions and cultures. In popular usage, the word "meditation" and the phrase "meditative practice" are often used imprecisely to designate practices found across many cultures. These can include almost anything that is claimed to train the attention of mind or to teach calmness or compassion.
(2025). 9780511816789
There remains no definition of necessary and sufficient criteria for meditation that has achieved widespread acceptance within the modern scientific community.

Separation of technique from tradition
Some of the difficulty in precisely defining meditation has been in recognizing the particularities of the many various ;Lutz, Dunne and Davidson, "Meditation and the Neuroscience of Consciousness: An Introduction" in The Cambridge handbook of consciousness by Philip David Zelazo, Morris Moscovitch, Evan Thompson, 2007 pp. 499–551 (proof copy) (NB: pagination of published was 499–551 proof was 497–550). and theories and practice can differ within a tradition. Taylor noted that even within a such as "Hindu" or "Buddhist", schools and individual teachers may teach distinct types of meditation. Ornstein noted that "Most techniques of meditation do not exist as solitary practices but are only artificially separable from an entire system of practice and belief." For instance, while monks meditate as part of their everyday lives, they also engage in codified rules with specific outcomes, living together in monasteries with specific cultural settings that include local rights and rituals as part of a unified set of practices.

Dictionary definitions
Dictionaries give both the original meaning of "thinking deeply about (something)", as well as the popular usages of "focusing one's mind for a period of time", "the act of giving your attention to only one thing, either as a religious activity or as a way of becoming calm and relaxed", and "to engage in mental exercise (such as concentrating on one's breathing or repetition of a ) for the purpose of reaching a heightened level of spiritual awareness."

Scholarly definitions
In modern research, meditation has been defined and characterized in various ways. Many of these emphasize the role of attention and characterize the practice of meditation as attempts to detach from reflexive, "discursive thinking," not judging the meditation-process itself ("logical relaxation"), to achieve a deeper, more devout, or more relaxed state.

Bond et al. (2009) identified criteria for defining a practice as meditation "for use in a comprehensive systematic review of the therapeutic use of meditation", using "a 5-round with a panel of 7 experts in meditation research" who were also trained in diverse but empirically highly studied (Eastern-derived or clinical) forms of meditation:

Several other definitions of meditation have been used by influential modern reviews of research on meditation across multiple traditions:

  • Walsh & Shapiro (2006): "Meditation refers to a family of self-regulation practices that focus on training attention and awareness in order to bring mental processes under greater voluntary control and thereby foster general mental well-being and development and/or specific capacities such as calm, clarity, and concentration"
  • Cahn & Polich (2006): " Meditation is used to describe practices that self-regulate the body and mind, thereby affecting mental events by engaging a specific attentional set.... regulation of attention is the central commonality across the many divergent methods"
  • Jevning et al. (1992): "We define meditation... as a stylized mental technique... repetitively practiced for the purpose of attaining a subjective experience that is frequently described as very restful, silent, and of heightened alertness, often characterized as blissful"
  • Goleman (1988): "the need for the meditator to retrain his attention, whether through concentration or mindfulness, is the single invariant ingredient in... every meditation system"

Classifications
Focused and open methods
In the West, meditation techniques have often been classified in two broad categories, which in actual practice are often combined: focused (or concentrative) meditation and open monitoring (or mindfulness) meditation: Focused methods include , to an idea or feeling (such as mettā – loving-kindness), to a kōan, or to a mantra (such as in transcendental meditation), and single point meditation.
(2025). 9781586380199, Nilgiri Press. .
Open monitoring methods include , and other states.

Other possible typologies
Another typology divides meditation approaches into concentrative, generative, receptive and reflective practices:
  • concentrative: focused attention, including breath meditation, TM, and visualizations;
  • generative: developing qualities like loving kindness and compassion;
  • receptive: open monitoring;
  • reflective: systematic investigation, .

The Buddhist tradition often divides meditative practice into samatha, or calm abiding, and , insight. , a form of focused attention, calms down the mind; this calmed mind can then investigate the nature of reality, by monitoring the fleeting and ever-changing constituents of experience, by reflective investigation, or by "turning back the radiance," focusing awareness on awareness itself and discerning the true nature of mind as awareness itself.

Matko and Sedlmeier (2019) "call into question the common division into 'focused attention' and 'open-monitoring' practices." They argue for "two orthogonal dimensions along which meditation techniques could be classified," namely "activation" and "amount of body orientation," proposing seven clusters of techniques: "mindful observation, body-centered meditation, visual concentration, contemplation, affect-centered meditation, mantra meditation, and meditation with movement."

Jonathan Shear argues that transcendental meditation is an "automatic self-transcending" technique, different from focused attention and open monitoring. In this kind of practice, "there is no attempt to sustain any particular condition at all. Practices of this kind, once started, are reported to automatically 'transcend' their own activity and disappear, to be started up again later if appropriate." Yet, Shear also states that "automatic self-transcending" also applies to the way other techniques such as from Zen and Qigong are practiced by experienced meditators "once they had become effortless and automatic through years of practice."

Technique
Posture
or body postures such as padmasana , ), cross-legged sitting, , and positions are popular meditative postures in Hinduism, Buddhism, and ,
(2025). 9780241253045, Penguin Books.
although other postures such as sitting, supine (lying), and standing are also used. Meditation is also sometimes done while walking, known as , while doing a simple task mindfully, known as samu, or while lying down, known as .

A 2018 scientifically compared the stability offered by three common meditation supports—a cushion, a meditation bench, and a chair. The study found that the zafu provided the most stability against side-to-side body sway, while also concluding that chairs and benches are suitable alternatives for beginners, with chairs being specifically recommended for people with back pain or difficulty getting up from a low seated position.

Frequency
The Transcendental Meditation technique recommends practice of 20 minutes twice per day. Some techniques suggest less time, especially when starting meditation,Mindfulness#Meditation method and has quoted research saying benefits can be achieved with a practice of only 8 minutes per day. Research shows improvement in meditation time with simple oral and video training. Some meditators practice for much longer, particularly when on a course or retreat. Some meditators find practice best in .

Supporting aids
Use of prayer beads
Some religions have traditions of using as tools in devotional meditation. Mysteries of the Rosary by Stephen J. Binz 2005 p. 3 The everything Buddhism book by Jacky Sach 2003 p. 175For a general overview, see
(2025). 9781887752954, Fons Vitae.
Most prayer beads and Christian rosaries consist of pearls or beads linked together by a thread. The Roman Catholic rosary is a string of beads containing five sets with ten small beads. Eastern and Oriental Orthodox have traditions of using called Comboschini or Meqetaria as an aid to prayerful meditation. The Hindu has 108 beads. The figure 108 in itself having spiritual significance as the energy of the sounds equivalates to Om, as well as those used in Gaudiya Vaishnavism, the Hare Krishna tradition, and .
(1995). 9788120816152, Motilal Banarsidass.
Buddhist prayer beads also have 108 beads, but hold a different meaning. In Buddhism, there are 108 human passions that impede enlightenment. Each bead is counted once as a person recites a until the person has gone all the way around the mala. The Muslim has 99 beads. There is also quite a variance when it comes to materials used for beads. Beads made from seeds of trees are considered sacred by devotees of , while followers of revere the wood that comes from the plant, also known as Holy Basil.
(1998). 9780585176208, University of Wisconsin Press.

Striking the meditator
The Buddhist literature has many stories of Enlightenment being attained through disciples being struck by their masters. T. Griffith Foulk recounts how the was an integral part of the practice when he trained:

Using a narrative
Neuroscientist and long-time meditator has expressed the view that having a narrative can help the maintenance of daily practice. For instance, he himself prostrates to the teachings, and meditates "not primarily for my benefit, but for the benefit of others".

Psychedelics
Studies suggest the potential of , such as and DMT, to enhance meditative training.

Walking Meditation
Walking meditation is a fundamental technique in Theravāda and Zen traditions. It involves walking slowly and mindfully in a straight path or circle, focusing attention on each step, the movement of the feet, the breath, and bodily sensations. It is often used in alternation with sitting meditation during retreats and daily practice to integrate mindfulness into bodily movement.Thích Nhất Hạnh. (1996). The Long Road Turns to Joy: A Guide to Walking Meditation. Parallax Press.

Meditation traditions
Origins
The history of meditation is intimately bound up with the religious context within which it was practiced. Rossano suggested that the emergence of the capacity for focused attention, an element of many methods of meditation, may have contributed to the latest phases of human biological evolution. Some of the earliest references to meditation, as well as proto-, are found in the of India.
(1982). 9788876524820, Università Gregoriana Editrice. .
According to Wynne, the earliest clear references to meditation are in the middle Upanishads and the (including the ).Alexander Wynne, The Origin of Buddhist Meditation. Routledge 2007, p. 51. The earliest reference is actually in the Mokshadharma, which dates to the early Buddhist period.The Katha Upanishad describes yoga, including meditation. On meditation in this and other post-Buddhist Hindu literature, see According to , the earlier Brihadaranyaka Upanishad is describing meditation when it states that "Having become calm and concentrated, one perceives the self (Ātman) within oneself" (BU 4.4.23).
(1996). 9780521438780, Cambridge University Press. .

Indian religions
Hinduism
There are many schools and styles of meditation within . In pre-modern and traditional , Yoga and Dhyana are practised to recognize 'pure awareness', or 'pure consciousness', undisturbed by the workings of the mind, as one's eternal self. In , individual self, is recognized as illusory, and in Reality identical with the omnipresent and non-dual Ātman-. In the dualistic Yoga school and , the Self is called , a pure consciousness undisturbed by , 'nature'. Depending on the tradition, the liberative event is named , vimukti or .

One of the most influential texts of classical Hindu Yoga is Patañjali's Yoga sutras (c. 400 CE), a text associated with Yoga and Samkhya and influenced by Buddhism, which outlines eight limbs leading to ("aloneness") or inner awareness. The first four, known as the "outer limbs," include ethical discipline (), rules (), physical postures (āsanas), and breath control (prāṇāyama). The fifth, withdrawal from the senses (pratyāhāra), transitions into the "inner limbs" that are one-pointedness of mind (dhāraṇā), meditation (dhyāna), and finally samādhi.

Later developments in Hindu meditation include the compilation of (forceful yoga) compendiums like the Hatha Yoga Pradipika, the development of as a major form of meditation, and . Another important Hindu yoga text is the , which makes use of and Vedanta Philosophy.

9780691143774, Princeton University Press. .

Mantra Meditation
The emphasizes that mantra meditation is a key practice for achieving liberation; practitioners can achieve a direct vision of the divine. The text integrates both Vedic and tantric elements, where mantras are not only seen as sacred sounds but as embodiment of the deity. This approach reflects a shift from the impersonal meditation on the sound-form of Brahman (Om) in the Upanishads to a personal, devotional focus on in the Bhagavata Purana.
(2025). 9780415670708, Routledge.

Jainism
has three elements called the ("Three Jewels"): right perception and faith, right knowledge and right conduct. Meditation in Jainism aims to reach and to remain in the pure state of soul which is believed to be pure consciousness, beyond any attachment or aversion. The practitioner strives to be just a knower-seer ( gyata-drashta). Jain meditation can be broadly categorized into Dharma dhyana and Shukla dhyana. Dharma dhyana is discriminating knowledge (bheda-vijñāna) of the tattvas (truths or fundamental principles), while shukla dhyana is meditation proper.

Jainism uses meditation techniques such as pindāstha-dhyāna, padāstha-dhyāna, rūpāstha-dhyāna, rūpātita-dhyāna, and savīrya-dhyāna. In padāstha dhyāna, one focuses on a , a combination of core letters or words on deity or themes. Jain followers practice mantra regularly by chanting loudly or silently in mind.

The meditation technique of includes agnya vichāya, in which one contemplates on seven facts – life and non-life, the inflow, bondage, stoppage and removal of , and the final accomplishment of liberation. In apaya vichāya, one contemplates on the incorrect insights one indulges, which eventually develops right insight. In vipaka vichāya, one reflects on the eight causes or basic types of karma. In sansathan vichāya, one thinks about the vastness of the universe and the loneliness of the soul.

Buddhism
pursue meditation as part of the path toward and . The closest words for meditation in the classical languages of are ("development"), and the core practices of body contemplations (repulsiveness and cemetery contemplations) and ( of in-and-out breathing) culminating in jhāna/ dhyāna or samādhi.

While most classical and contemporary Buddhist meditation guides are school-specific, the root meditative practices of various body recollections and have been preserved and transmitted in almost all Buddhist traditions, through like the Satipatthana Sutta and the , and through oral teacher-student transmissions. These ancient practices are supplemented with various distinct interpretations of, and developments in, these practices.

The Theravāda tradition stresses the development of samatha and vipassana, postulating over fifty methods for developing mindfulness based on the Satipatthana Sutta, and forty for developing concentration based on the .

The incorporated and Tantric practices, wedded with philosophy, and developed thousands of visualization meditations.

The tradition incorporated mindfulness and breath-meditation via the Dhyana sutras, which are based on the Sarvastivada-tradition. Sitting meditation, known as , is a central part of Zen practice. Downplaying the "petty complexities" of satipatthana and the body-recollections (but maintaining the awareness of immanent death), the early Chan-tradition developed the notions or practices of wu nian ("no thought, no fixation on thought, such as one's own views, experiences, and knowledge") and fēi sīliàng (非思量, Japanese: hishiryō, "nonthinking"); and kanxin ("observing the mind") and shou-i pu i (守一不移, "maintaining the one without wavering," turning the attention from the objects of experience, to the nature of mind, the perceiving subject itself, which is equated with .

The Silk Road transmission of Buddhism introduced Buddhist meditation to other Asian countries, reaching China in the 2nd century CE, and Japan in the 6th century CE.

(2025). 9780941532907, World Wisdom.
In the modern era, Buddhist meditation techniques have become popular in the wider world, due to the influence of Buddhist modernism on Asian Buddhism, and western lay interest in and the Vipassana movement, with many non-Buddhists taking-up meditative practices. The modernized concept of mindfulness (based on the Buddhist term sati) and related meditative practices have in turn led to mindfulness based therapies.

Dhyana
Dhyana, while often presented as a form of focused attention or concentration, as in Buddhagosa's Theravada classic the ("Path of purification", 5th c. CE), according to a number of contemporary scholars and scholar-practitioners, it is actually a description of the development of perfected equanimity and mindfulness, apparently induced by satipatthana, an open monitoring of the breath, without trying to regulate it. The same description, in a different formula, can be found in the , the "seven factors of awakening," and may therefore refer to the core program of early Buddhist bhavana.Gethin, The Buddhist Path to Awakening According to Vetter, dhyana seems to be a natural development from the sense-restraint and moral constrictions prescribed by the Buddhist tradition.Vetter, The meditative practices of early Buddhism

Samatha and vipassana
The Buddha identified two paramount mental qualities that arise from wholesome meditative practice or bhavana, namely ("calm," "serenity" "tranquility") and (insight). As the developing tradition started to emphasize the value of liberating insight, and dhyana came to be understood as concentration, samatha and were understood as two distinct meditative techniques. In this understanding, samatha steadies, composes, unifies and concentrates the mind, while vipassana enables one to see, explore and discern "formations" (conditioned phenomena based on the five ).

According to this understanding, which is central to Theravada orthodoxy but also plays a role in , through the meditative development of serenity, one is able to weaken the obscuring and bring the mind to a collected, pliant, and still state ( ). This quality of mind then supports the development of insight and wisdom (Prajñā) which is the quality of mind that can "clearly see" ( vi-passana) the nature of phenomena. What exactly is to be seen varies within the Buddhist traditions. In Theravada, all phenomena are to be seen as , , and . When this happens, one develops dispassion ( viraga) for all phenomena, including all negative qualities and hindrances and lets them go. It is through the release of the hindrances and ending of craving through the meditative development of insight that one gains liberation.See, for instance, AN 2.30 in , and

Sikhism
In , simran (meditation) and good deeds are both necessary to achieve the devotee's spiritual goals;
(2025). 9788170999614, Mittal Publications.
without good deeds meditation is futile. When meditate, they aim to feel God's presence and emerge in the divine light. It is only God's or order that allows a devotee to desire to begin to meditate.
(1980). 9788170173779, Abhinav Publications.
Nām japnā involves focusing one's attention on the names or great attributes of God.

Taoism
Taoist meditation has developed techniques including concentration, visualization, qi cultivation, , and meditations in its long history. Traditional Daoist meditative practices influenced Buddhism creating the unique meditative practices of that then spread through the rest of east Asia from around the 5th century.Traditional Chinese medicine and the Chinese martial arts were influenced and influences of Taoist meditation.

distinguishes three basic types of Taoist meditation: "concentrative", "insight", and "visualization".Kohn, Livia (2008), "Meditation and visualization," in The Encyclopedia of Taoism, ed. by Fabrizio Pregadio, p. 118. Ding (literally means "decide; settle; stabilize") refers to "deep concentration", "intent contemplation", or "perfect absorption". Guan () meditation seeks to merge and attain unity with the Dao. It was developed by (618–907) Taoist masters based upon the Buddhist practice of Vipassanā "insight" or "wisdom" meditation. Cun () has a sense of "to cause to exist; to make present" in the meditation techniques popularized by the Taoist and . A meditator visualizes or actualizes solar and lunar essences, lights, and deities within their body, which supposedly results in health and longevity, even xian 仙/仚/僊, "immortality".

The Guanzi essay (late 4th century BCE) "Inward training" is the oldest received writing on the subject of qi cultivation and breath-control meditation techniques.

(2025). 9780521470308, Cambridge University Press. .
For instance, "When you enlarge your mind and let go of it, when you relax your vital breath and expand it, when your body is calm and unmoving: And you can maintain the One and discard the myriad disturbances. ... This is called "revolving the vital breath": Your thoughts and deeds seem heavenly."Roth, Harold D. (1999), Original Tao: Inward Training (Nei-yeh ) and the Foundations of Taoist Mysticism, Columbia University Press, p. 92.

The Taoist Zhuangzi (c. 3rd century BCE) records or "sitting forgetting" meditation. asked his disciple Yan Hui to explain what "sit and forget" means: "I slough off my limbs and trunk, dim my intelligence, depart from my form, leave knowledge behind, and become identical with the Transformational Thoroughfare."Mair, Victor H., tr. (1994), Wandering on the Way: Early Taoist Tales and Parables of Chuang Tzu, Bantam Books, p. 64.

Taoist meditation practices are central to Chinese martial arts (and some Japanese martial arts), especially the qi-related "internal martial arts". Some well-known examples are ("guiding and pulling"), ("life-energy exercises"), ("internal exercises"), ("internal alchemy"), and ("great ultimate boxing"), which is thought of as moving meditation. One common explanation contrasts "movement in stillness" referring to energetic visualization of qi circulation in qigong and ("seated meditation"), versus "stillness in movement" referring to a state of meditative calm in forms. Also the unification or middle road forms such as Wuxingheqidao that seeks the unification of internal alchemical forms with more external forms.`

Abrahamic religions
Judaism
Judaism has made use of meditative practices for thousands of years. The history and varieties of Jewish meditation by Mark Verman 1997 p. 1 For instance, in the , the patriarch is described as going "לשוח" ( lasuach) in the field – a term understood by all commentators as some type of meditative practice (Genesis 24:63). Similarly, there are indications throughout the (the Hebrew ) that the prophets meditated. The history and varieties of Jewish meditation by Mark Verman 1997 p. 45 In the , there are two words for meditation: hāgâ (), to sigh or murmur, but also to meditate, and sîḥâ (), to muse, or rehearse in one's mind.

Classical Jewish texts espouse a wide range of meditative practices, often associated with the cultivation of or intention. The first layer of , the , describes ancient sages "waiting" for an hour before their prayers, "in order to direct their hearts to the Omnipresent One" ( Berakhot 5:1). Other early include instructions for visualizing the Divine Presence (B. Sanhedrin 22a) and breathing with conscious gratitude for every breath ( 14:9).Buxbaum, Y. (1990) Jewish Spiritual Practices, New York, Rowman and Littlefield, pp. 108-10, 423-35.

One of the best-known types of meditation in early Jewish mysticism was the work of the , from the root /R-K-B/ meaning "chariot" (of God). Some meditative traditions have been encouraged in , and some Jews have described Kabbalah as an inherently meditative field of study.

(1961). 9780805210422, Schocken Books. .
Matt, D.C. (1996) The Essential Kabbalah: The Heart of Jewish Mysticism, San Francisco, HarperCollins. Kabbalistic meditation often involves the mental visualization of the supernal realms. has argued that the ultimate purpose of Kabbalistic meditation is to understand and cleave to the Divine.

Meditation has been of interest to a wide variety of modern Jews. In modern Jewish practice, one of the best known meditative practices is called "" ( התבודדות, alternatively transliterated as "hisbodedus"), and is explained in , , and writings, especially the Hasidic method of Rabbi Nachman of Breslav. The word derives from the Hebrew word "boded" (בודד), meaning the state of being alone. Another Hasidic system is the method of "hisbonenus", related to the of "Binah", Hebrew for understanding. This practice is the analytical reflective process of making oneself understand a mystical concept well, that follows and internalises its study in Hasidic writings. The , founded by Rabbi Israel Salanter in the middle of the nineteenth-century, emphasized meditative practices of and that could help to improve moral character.Claussen, Geoffrey. "The Practice of Musar" . Conservative Judaism 63, no. 2 (2012): 3–26. Retrieved 10 June 2014 Conservative rabbi has emphasized meditation playing an important role in the process of .

(2007). 9780316025911, Little, Brown. .
have adopted Buddhist styles of meditation.

Christianity
Christian meditation is a term for a form of prayer in which a structured attempt is made to get in touch with and deliberately reflect upon the revelations of . Christian Meditation for Beginners by Thomas Zanzig, Marilyn Kielbasa 2000, p. 7 In the , by 20 BCE Philo of Alexandria had written on some form of "spiritual exercises" involving attention (prosoche) and concentrationHadot, Pierre; Arnold I. Davidson (1995) Philosophy as a way of life pp. 83–84 and by the 3rd century had developed meditative techniques. The word meditation comes from the Latin word meditatum, which means to "concentrate" or "to ponder". Monk introduced this terminology for the first time in the 12th century AD. Christian meditation is the process of deliberately focusing on specific thoughts (e.g. a scene involving and the ) and reflecting on their meaning in the context of the love of God. An introduction to Christian spirituality by F. Antonisamy, 2000 pp. 76–77 Christian meditation is sometimes taken to mean the middle level in a broad three-stage characterization of prayer: it then involves more reflection than first level vocal , but is more structured than the multiple layers of in Christianity. Simple Ways to Pray by Emilie Griffin 2005 p. 134

Between the 10th and 14th centuries, was developed, particularly on in Greece, and involves the repetition of the . Archived from the original on 11 February 2014. Interactions with Indians or the may have influenced the Eastern Christian meditation approach to hesychasm, but this is unproven. An introduction to the Christian Orthodox churches by John Binns 2002 p. 128

Western Christian meditation contrasts with most other approaches in that it does not involve the repetition of any phrase or action and requires no specific posture. Western Christian meditation progressed from the 6th century practice of Bible reading among Benedictine monks called , i.e. divine reading. Its four formal steps as a "ladder" were defined by the monk in the 12th century with the Latin terms lectio, meditatio, oratio, and contemplatio (i.e. read, ponder, pray, contemplate). Western Christian meditation was further developed by saints such as Ignatius of Loyola and Teresa of Avila in the 16th century. Christian Spirituality: A Historical Sketch by George Lane 2005 p. 20 Christian spirituality: themes from the tradition by Lawrence S. Cunningham, Keith J. Egan 1996 p. 38 The Oblate Life by Gervase Holdaway, 2008 p. 109 After Augustine: the meditative reader and the text by Brian Stock 2001 p. 105

On 28 April 2021, , in an address to the General Audience, said that meditation is a need for everyone. He noted that the term "meditation" has had many meanings throughout history, and that "the ancients used to say that the organ of prayer is the heart."

In Catholic Christianity, the is a devotion for the meditation of the mysteries of Jesus and Mary. "The gentle repetition of its prayers makes it an excellent means to moving into deeper meditation. It gives us an opportunity to open ourselves to God's word, to refine our interior gaze by turning our minds to the life of Christ. The first principle is that meditation is learned through practice. Many people who practice rosary meditation begin very simply and gradually develop a more sophisticated meditation. The meditator learns to hear an interior voice, the voice of God. Similarly, the of the denomination, the Wreath of Christ of the faith, and the Anglican prayer beads of the tradition are used for Christian prayer and meditation.

(2020). 9780429534867, .
(2008). 9780819220929, Church Publishing.

According to Edmund P. Clowney, Christian meditation contrasts with Eastern forms of meditation as radically as the portrayal of God the Father in the Bible contrasts with depictions of or in Indian teachings. Christian Meditation by Edmund P. Clowney, 1979 p. 12 Unlike some Eastern styles, most styles of Christian meditation do not rely on the repeated use of , and yet are also intended to stimulate thought and deepen meaning. Christian meditation aims to heighten the personal relationship based on the love of God that marks Christian communion. Christian Meditation by Edmund P. Clowney, 1979 pp. 12–13 The encyclopedia of Christianity, Volume 3 by Erwin Fahlbusch, Geoffrey William Bromiley 2003 p. 488 In Aspects of Christian meditation, the warned of potential incompatibilities in mixing Christian and Eastern styles of meditation. EWTN: Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith Letter on certain aspects of Christian meditation (in English), 15 October 1989] In 2003, in A Christian reflection on the New Age the announced that the "Church avoids any concept that is close to those of the ".

Islam
( zikr) is a type of meditation within Islam, meaning remembering and mentioning God, which involves the repetition of the 99 Names of God since the 8th or 9th century. Prayer: a history by Philip Zaleski, Carol Zaleski 2005 pp. 147–49 Global Encyclopaedia of Education by Rama Sankar Yadav & B.N. Mandal 2007 p. 63 It is interpreted in different meditative techniques in Sufism or Islamic mysticism. This became one of the essential elements of Sufism as it was systematized traditionally. It is juxtaposed with fikr (thinking) which leads to knowledge. Sainthood and revelatory discourse by David Emmanuel Singh 2003 p. 154 By the 12th century, the practice of Sufism included specific meditative techniques, and its followers practiced breathing controls and the repetition of holy words. Spiritual Psychology by Akbar Husain 2006 p. 109

Sufism uses a meditative procedure like Buddhist concentration, involving high-intensity and sharply focused introspection. In the Oveyssi-Shahmaghsoudi Sufi order, for example, takes the form of tamarkoz, "concentration" in .

Tafakkur or tadabbur in Sufism literally means reflection upon the : this is considered to permit access to a form of and development that can emanate only from the higher level, i.e. from God. The sensation of receiving divine inspiration awakens and liberates both heart and intellect, permitting such inner growth that the apparently mundane actually takes on the quality of the . Muslim teachings embrace life as a test of one's submission to God.

(2025). 9781881893059, Universal Unity.

of certain Sufi orders practice , a form of physically active meditation.

Baháʼí Faith
In the teachings of the Baháʼí Faith, which derives from an Islamic context but is universalist in orientation, meditation is a primary tool for spiritual development, involving reflection on the words of God. While prayer and meditation are linked, where meditation happens generally in a prayerful attitude, prayer is seen specifically as turning toward God, and meditation is seen as a communion with one's self where one focuses on the divine.

In Baháʼí teachings the purpose of meditation is to strengthen one's understanding of the words of God, and to make one's soul more susceptible to their potentially transformative power, more receptive to the need for both prayer and meditation to bring about and maintain a spiritual communion with God.Hatcher, William S. (1982). The Concept of Spirituality . Bahá'í Studies, volume 11. Association for Bahá'í Studies. Ottawa.

Bahá'u'lláh, the founder of the religion, never specified any particular form of meditation, and thus each person is free to choose their own form. However, he did state that Baháʼís should read a passage of the Baháʼí writings twice a day, once in the morning, and once in the evening, and meditate on it. He also encouraged people to reflect on one's actions and worth at the end of each day. During the Nineteen Day Fast, a period of the year during which Baháʼís adhere to a sunrise-to-sunset fast, they meditate and pray to reinvigorate their spiritual forces.

Modern spirituality
Modern dissemination in the West
Meditation has spread in the West since the late 19th century, accompanying increased travel and communication among cultures worldwide. Most prominent has been the transmission of Asian-derived practices to the West. In addition, interest in some Western-based meditative practices has been revived,
(1997). 9780826410412, Continuum. .
and these have been disseminated to a limited extent to Asian countries.The organization Contemplative Outreach , which teaches Christian , has chapters in non-Western locations in Malaysia, Singapore, and South Korea (accessed 5 July 2010)

Ideas about Eastern meditation had begun "seeping into American popular culture even before the American Revolution through the various sects of European occult Christianity", and such ideas "came pouring in to during the era of the transcendentalists, especially between the 1840s and the 1880s." The following decades saw further spread of these ideas to America:

More recently, in the 1960s, another surge in Western interest in meditative practices began. The rise of communist political power in Asia led to many Asian spiritual teachers taking refuge in Western countries, oftentimes as refugees. In addition to spiritual forms of meditation, secular forms of meditation have taken root. Rather than focusing on spiritual growth, secular meditation emphasizes stress reduction, relaxation and self-improvement. Encyclopedia of Psychology and Religion by David A. Leeming, Kathryn Madden, Stanton Marlan 2009 ISBN page 559

The 2012 US National Health Interview Survey of 34,525 subjects found that 8% of US adults used meditation, with lifetime and 12-month prevalence of meditation use of 5.2% and 4.1% respectively. Meditation use among workers was 10% (up from 8% in 2002).

Mantra meditation, with the use of a japa mala and especially with focus on the Hare Krishna maha-mantra, is a central practice of the Gaudiya Vaishnava faith tradition and the International Society for Krishna Consciousness, also known as the Hare Krishna movement. Other popular New Religious Movements include the Ramakrishna Mission, , Divine Light Mission, , , , Transcendental Meditation, , , and Heartfulness Meditation (Sahaj Marg).

New Age
meditations are often influenced by Eastern philosophy, , , and , yet may contain some degree of Western influence. In the West, meditation found its mainstream roots through the social revolution of the 1960s and 1970s, when many of the rebelled against traditional western religion as a reaction against what some perceived as the failure of Christianity to provide spiritual and ethical guidance. New Age meditation as practised by the early hippies is regarded for its techniques of blanking out the mind and releasing oneself from religious, politically and socially patterned thinking. This is often aided by repetitive chanting of a mantra, or focusing on an object. New Age meditation evolved into a range of purposes and practices, from serenity and balance, stress management and to access to other realms of consciousness, involving the concentration of energy in group or individual meditation to the supreme goal of samadhi, as in the ancient yogic practice of meditation.
(1990). 9780517577974, Harmony Books.

Guided meditation
Guided meditation is a form of meditation which uses a number of different techniques to achieve or enhance the meditative state. It may simply be meditation done under the guidance of a trained practitioner or teacher, or it may be through the use of imagery, music, and other techniques.Complementary, Alternative, or Integrative Health: What's In a Name? US Department of Health and Human Services. Public Health Service. National Institutes of Health. NIH Publication No. D347. Retrieved 31 July 2015. The session can be either in person, via media Sources:
  • Stein, T. R., Olivo, E. L., Grand, S. H., Namerow, P. B., Costa, J., and Oz, M. C., A pilot study to assess the effects of a guided imagery audiotape intervention on psychological outcomes in patients undergoing coronary artery bypass graft surgery. Holistic Nursing Practice, Vol. 24, No. 4, 2010, pp213-222.
  • Morris, C., The use of self-service technologies in stress management: A pilot project. Master of Social Work Clinical Research Papers. Saint Catherine University, St. Paul, MN, 2012.
  • Carter, E., Pre-packaged guided imagery for stress reduction: Initial results. Counseling, Psychotherapy, and Health, Vol. 2, No. 2, 2006, pp27-39. comprising music or verbal instruction, or a combination of both.Rose J. P. and Weis, J., Sound meditation in oncological rehabilitation: a pilot study of a receptive music therapy group using the monochord. Forschende Komplementarmedizin, Vol. 15, No. 6, 2006, pp335-343.Grocke, D., and Wigram, T., Receptive methods in music therapy: Techniques and clinical applications for music therapy clinicians, educators, and students. London, England: Jessica Kingsley, 2007. The most common form is a combination of and , , relaxation, mindfulness, and .Astin, J.A., Shapiro, S.L., Eisenberg, D. M., and Forys, M.A., Mind-body medicine: State of the science, implications for practice. Journal of the American Board of Family Medicine, Vol. 16:, 2003, pp131–147.Newham, P., Guided Meditation: Principles and Practice. London; Tigers Eye, 2005.Newham, P., Music, and Meditation: The Therapeutics of Sound. London: Tigers Eye: 2014.

Because of the different combinations used under the one term, it can be difficult to attribute positive or negative outcomes to any of the various techniques. Furthermore, the term is frequently used interchangeably with "guided imagery" and sometimes with "creative visualization" in popular psychology and literature. It is less commonly used in and scientific publications. Consequently, guided meditation cannot be understood as a single technique but rather multiple techniques that are integral to its practice.Post-White J. 2002. Clinical indication for use of imagery in oncology practice. In Voice Massage, Scripts for Guided Imagery, Edwards D.M (Ed.). Oncology Nursing Society: Pittsburgh, PA.Wallace KG. 1997. Analysis of recent literature concerning relaxation and imagery interventions for cancer pain. Cancer Nursing 20: 79–87.Luebert K, Dahme B, Hasenbring M. 2001. The effectiveness of relaxation training in reducing treatment-related symptoms and improving emotional adjustment in acute non-surgical cancer treatment: A meta-analytical review. Psycho-Oncology, Vol. 10: pp490–502.

Guided meditation as an aggregate or synthesis of techniques includes , , , relaxation, meditative praxis, and self-reflective , all of which have been shown to have benefits when employed as an adjunct to primary strategies. Benefits include lower levels of stress, Sources:

  • Unger, C. A., Busse, D., & Yim, I. S., The effect of guided relaxation on cortisol and affect: Stress reactivity as a moderator. Journal of Health Psychology, 2015, 1359105315595118.
  • Weigensberg M.J., Lane C.J., Winners O., Wright T., Nguyen-Rodriguez S., Goran M.I., Spruijt-Metz, D. Acute effects of stress-reduction Interactive Guided Imagery (SM) on salivary cortisol in overweight Latino adolescents. Journal of Alternative and Complementary Medicine, Vol. 15, No. 3, 2003, pp297-303.
  • Varvogli, L., and Darviri, C., Stress Management Techniques: evidence-based procedures that reduce stress and promote health. Health Science Journal, Vol. 5, No. 2, 2011 pp74-89.
  • Carter, E., Pre-packaged guided imagery for stress reduction: Initial results. Counseling, Psychotherapy, and Health, Vol. 2, No. 2, 2006, pp27-39.
  • Wynd C. A., Relaxation imagery used for stress reduction in the prevention of smoking relapse. Journal of Advanced Nursing, Vol. 17, No. 3, 2006, pp294-302.
  • Lin, M. F., Hsu, M. C., Chang, H. J., Hsu, Y. Y., Chou, M. H., and Crawford, P., Pivotal moments and changes in the Bonny Method of Guided Imagery and Music for patients with depression. Journal of Clinical Nursing, Vol. 19, Nos. 7‐8, 2010, pp1139-1148.
  • Roffe, L., Schmidt, K., and Ernst, E., A systematic review of guided imagery as an adjuvant cancer therapy. Psycho-oncology, Vol. 14, No. 8, 2005, pp607-617.
  • Holden-Lund C., Effects of relaxation with guided imagery on surgical stress and wound healing. Research in Nursing and Health, Vol. 11, No. 4, 2007, pp235-244.
  • Stein, T. R., Olivo, E. L., Grand, S. H., Namerow, P. B., Costa, J., and Oz, M. C., A pilot study to assess the effects of a guided imagery audiotape intervention on psychological outcomes in patients undergoing coronary artery bypass graft surgery. Holistic Nursing Practice, Vol. 24, No. 4, 2010, pp213-222.
  • Sahler O.J., Hunter, B.C., Liesveld J.L., The effect of using music therapy with relaxation imagery in the management of patients undergoing bone marrow transplantation: a pilot feasibility study. Alternative Therapies, Vol. 9, No. 6, 2003, pp70- 74.
  • Kent, D., "Zenventures: Unwind your Imagination with Guided Meditation". Masters Thesis. Buffalo State University, New York, 2014. reducing ,Epstein G.N., Halper J.P., Barrett E.A., Birdsall, C., McGee, M., Baron K.P., Lowenstein S., A pilot study of mind-body changes in adults with asthma who practice mental imagery. alternative therapies. Volume 10, July/August 2004, pp66-71. physical , Sources:
  • Menzies V., Taylor A.G., Bourguignon C., Effects of guided imagery on outcomes of pain, functional status, and self-efficacy in persons diagnosed with fibromyalgia. Journal of Alternative and Complementary Medicine, Vol. 12, No. 1, 2006, pp23-30.
  • Kwekkeboom, K. L., Kneip, J., and Pearson, L., A pilot study to predict success with guided imagery for cancer pain. Pain Management Nursing, Vol. 4, No. 3, 2003, pp112-123.
  • Antall G.F., Kresevic D. The use of guided imagery to manage pain in an elderly orthopedic population. Orthopaedic Nursing, Vol. 23, No. 5, September/October 2004, pp335-340 , Sources:
  • Ong, J. C., Manber, R., Segal, Z., Xia, Y., Shapiro, S., and Wyatt, J. K., A randomized controlled trial of mindfulness meditation for chronic insomnia. Sleep, Vol. 37, No. 9, 2014, p1553.
  • Singh, A., and Modi, R., Meditation and positive mental health. Indian Journal of Positive Psychology, Vol. 3, No. 3, 2012, p273.
  • Molen, Y., Santos, G., Carvalho, L., Prado, L., and Prado, G., Pre-sleep worry decreases by adding reading and guided imagery to insomnia treatment. Sleep Medicine, Vol. 14, 2013, e210-e211. episodic anger,Awalt, R. M., Reilly, P. M., and Shopshire, M. S., The angry patient: an intervention for managing anger in substance abuse treatment. Journal of psychoactive drugs, Vol. 29, No. 4, 1997, 353-358. negative or irrational thinking, Sources:
  • Lang, T. J., Blackwell, S. E., Harmer, C., Davison, P., & Holmes, E. A., Cognitive bias modification using mental imagery for depression: Developing a novel computerized intervention to change negative thinking styles. European Journal of Personality, Vol. 26, 2012, pp145–157.
  • Teasdale, J. D., Emotion and two kinds of meaning: Cognitive therapy and applied cognitive science. Behaviour Research and Therapy, Vol. 31, No. 4, 1993, pp339-354.
  • Birnbaum, L., & Birnbaum, A., In search of inner wisdom: guided mindfulness meditation in the context of suicide. The Scientific World Journal, Vol. 4, 2004, pp216-227. and , as well as improving coping skills, Sources:
  • Manyande, A., Berg, S., Gettins, D., Stanford, S. C., Mazhero, S., Marks, D. F., and Salmon, P., Preoperative rehearsal of active coping imagery influences subjective and hormonal responses to abdominal surgery. Psychosomatic Medicine, Vol. 57, No. 2, 1995, pp177-182.
  • Hockenberry, M. H., Guided imagery as a coping measure for children with cancer. Journal of Pediatric Oncology Nursing, Vol. 6, No. 2, 1989, pp29-29. focus, Sources:
  • Esplen, M. J. and Hodnett, E., A Pilot Study Investigating Student Musicians' Experiences of Guided Imagery as a Technique to Manage Performance Anxiety. Medical Problems of Performing Artists, Vol. 14, No. 3, 1999, pp127-132.
  • Feltz, D. L., and Riessinger, C. A., Effects of in vivo emotive imagery and performance feedback on self-efficacy and muscular endurance. Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology, Vol. 12, No. 2, 1990, pp132-143.
  • Sanders, C. W., Sadoski, M., Bramson, R., Wiprud, R., and Van Walsum, K., Comparing the effects of physical practice and mental imagery rehearsal on learning basic surgical skills by medical students. American journal of obstetrics and gynecology, Vol. 191, No. 5, 2004, pp1811-1814. and a general feeling of .Hanh, Thich Nhat. The blooming of a lotus: Guided meditation for achieving the miracle of mindfulness. Beacon Press, 2009.LeónPizarro C., Gich I., Barthe E., Rovirosa A., Farrús B., Casas F., Verger E., Biete A., Craven Bartle J., Sierra J., Arcusa A., A randomized trial of the effect of training in relaxation and guided imagery techniques in improving psychological and quality-of-life indices for gynecologic and breast brachytherapy patients. Psycho-oncology, Vol. 16, No. 11, 2007, pp971-979.

Effects
Research on the processes and effects of meditation is a subfield of research. Modern scientific techniques, such as functional magnetic resonance imaging and electroencephalography, were used to observe neurological responses during meditation. Concerns have been raised on the quality of meditation research, including the particular characteristics of individuals who tend to participate.

Meditation lowers heart rate, oxygen consumption, breathing frequency, , levels, and sympathetic nervous system activity (associated with the fight-or-flight response), along with a modest decline in blood pressure.

(2025). 9780824876678, University of Hawaiʻi Press.
(1996). 9781557530844, Purdue University Press. .
However, those who have meditated for two or three years were found to already have low blood pressure. During meditation, the oxygen consumption decrease averages 10 to 20 percent over the first three minutes. During sleep for example, oxygen consumption decreases around 8 percent over four or five hours. For meditators who have practiced for years, breath rate can drop to three or four breaths per minute and "brain waves slow from the usual (seen in waking activity) or (seen in normal relaxation) to much slower and ".
(2017). 9780198794738, Oxford University Press. .

Studies demonstrate that meditation has a moderate effect to reduce pain. There is insufficient evidence for any effect of meditation on positive mood, attention, eating habits, sleep, or body weight.

Luberto er all (2017), in a systematic review and meta-analysis of the effects of meditation on , , and behaviors, found that meditation practices had small to medium effects on self-reported and observable outcomes, concluding that such practices can "improve positive prosocial emotions and behaviors". However, a meta-review published on Scientific Reports showed that the evidence is very weak and "that the effects of meditation on compassion were only significant when compared to passive control groups suggests that other forms of active interventions (like watching a nature video) might produce similar outcomes to meditation".

Meditation has also been found to support the development of psychological resilience. Regular practice can help individuals manage chronic stress, trauma, and emotional challenges by fostering greater emotional regulation, reducing rumination, and enhancing adaptive coping strategies.Southwick, S.M., & Charney, D.S. (2012). Resilience: The Science of Mastering Life's Greatest Challenges. Cambridge University Press.

"Challenging" and adverse effects
Contemplative traditions
Throughout East Asia the detrimental and undesirable effects of incorrect meditation and mindfulness practice are well documented due to the long varied history of cultivation in these fields. Many traditional herbal, intentional and manual treatments have been prescribed from the past to present day for what is diagnosed as (走火入魔).
(2025). 9780702047770, Elsevier Health Sciences.

Meditation may induce "challenging" and "unwanted" experiences, and adverse effects to physical and . Some of these experiences and effects are documented in the contemplative traditions, but can be quite perplexing and burdensome when the outcomes of meditation are expected to result in more advantageous and beneficial health outcomes than detrimental ones. By extension this problem is compounded with little or no accessible support or explanatory framework for novice or laity practitioners to know when it is appropriate to self manage or when it is advisable to seek professional advice on practice or the management or intervention on adverse symptomatology that may arise in this field of self-cultivation .

According to Farias et al. (2020), the most common adverse effects are in people with a history of anxiety and depression. Other adverse psychological symptoms may include narcissistic, sociopathic behaviour and depersonalization or altered sense of self or the world, distorted emotions or thoughts, a mild form of psychosis including auditory and visual hallucinations. In extreme cases in patients with underlying undiagnosed or historical emotional conditions there have been instances of self-harm.

According to Schlosser et al. (2019), "preliminary findings suggest that their occurrence is highly dependent on a complex interaction of contextual factors." For instance, meditation-related psychosis has been linked to sleep deprivation, preceding mental dispositions, and meditation without sufficient social support or any explanatory framework. However, according to Farias et al. (2020), "minor adverse effects have been observed in individuals with no previous history of mental health problems") Farias et al. (2020) further note that "it is also possible that participants predisposed to heightened levels of anxiety and depression are more likely to begin or maintain a meditation practice to manage their symptoms."

According to Farias et al. (2020) there is a prevalence of 8.3% adverse effects, "similar to those reported for psychotherapy practice in general." Schlosser et al. (2019) reported that of 1,232 regular meditators with at least two months of meditation experience, about a quarter reported having had particularly unpleasant meditation-related experiences which they thought may have been caused by their meditation practice. Meditators with high levels of repetitive negative thinking, forced breathing causing hypoxia and those who only engage in deconstructive meditation (vipassana/insight meditation) were more likely to report unpleasant side effects.

The appraisal of the experiences may be determined by the framework used to interpret these experiences. Schlosser et al. "found strong evidence that religious participants have lower odds of having particularly unpleasant meditation-related experiences," and "found weak evidence that female participants were less likely to have unpleasant meditation-related experiences," and note the importance of "understanding when these experiences are constitutive elements of meditative practice rather than merely negative effects."

Difficult experiences encountered in meditation are mentioned in traditional sources, and some may be considered to be an expected part of the process. According to Salguero,

The mentions various unpleasant stages, and possible "unwholesome or frightening visions" are mentioned in Practical Insight Meditation: Basic and Progressive Stages, a practical manual on vipassanā meditation by Mahāsi Sayādaw. Classical sources mention makyō, Zen sickness () and related difficulties, such as (labels=no), and mojing (labels=no). Traditional sources also precribe cures against these experiences, for example Hakuin Ekaku's treatment of Zen-sickness.

Mindfulness
Both the soundness of the scientific foundations of mindfulness, and the desirability of its social effects, have been questioned. The Buddha Pill: Can Meditation Change You? by M. Farias and C. Wikholm, 2019 Mindlessness: The Corruption of Mindfulness in a Culture of Narcissism by T. Joiner, 2017 McMindfulness: How Mindfulness Became the New Capitalist Spirituality by R. Purser, 2019 Hafenbrack et al. (2022), in a study on mindfulness with 1400 participants, found that focused-breathing meditation can dampen the relationship between transgressions and the desire to engage in reparative prosocial behaviors. Poullin et al. (2021) found that mindfulness can increase the trait of . The study, consisting of two interrelated parts and totaling 691 participants, found that a mindfulness induction, compared to a control condition, led to decreased prosocial behavior. This effect was moderated by self-construals such that people with relatively independent self-construals became less prosocial while people with relatively interdependent self-construals became more so. In the western world where independent self-construals generally predominate (self centric orientated) meditation may thus have potentially detrimental effects. These new findings about meditations socially problematic effects imply that it can be contraindicated to use meditation as a tool to handle acute personal conflicts or relational difficulties; in the words of Andrew Hafenbrack, one of the authors of the study, "If we 'artificially' reduce our guilt by meditating it away, we may end up with worse relationships, or even fewer relationships".

Secular applications
Psychotherapy
(1875–1961) was an early western explorer of eastern religious practices.C. G. Jung, "Yoga and the West" (1936), Collected Works v.11.C. G. Jung, "Forward to Suzuki's An Introduction to Zen Buddhism", (1939), Collected Works v.11. He clearly advocated ways to increase the conscious of an individual. Yet he expressed some caution concerning a westerner's direct immersion in eastern practices without some prior appreciation of the differing spiritual and cultural contexts.C. G. Jung, "The psychology of eastern meditation" (1943), Collected Works v.11.V. Walter Odajnyk, Gathering the Light. A psychology of meditation (Shambhala 1993), pp. 18-21. (1900–1980) later explored spiritual practices of the east.Erich Fromm, Zen Buddhism and psychoanalysis (1960).

Clinical
Since the 1970s, clinical psychology and have developed meditation techniques for numerous psychological conditions. Mindfulness practice is employed in psychology to alleviate mental and physical conditions, such as affecting the endocrine system therefore reducing depression, and helping to alleviate stress, and . Mindfulness is also used as a form of interventional therapy in the treatment of addiction including , although the quantity and quality of evidence based research has been poor.

The US National Center for Complementary and Integrative Health states that "Meditation and mindfulness practices may have a variety of health benefits and may help people improve the quality of their lives. Recent studies have investigated if meditation or mindfulness helps people manage anxiety, stress, depression, pain, or symptoms related to withdrawal from nicotine, alcohol, or opioids." However, the NCCIC goes on to caution that, "results from the studies have been difficult to analyze and may have been interpreted too optimistically."

A 2014 review found that practice of mindfulness meditation for two to six months by people undergoing long-term or medical therapy could produce moderate improvements in pain management, , depression. In 2017, the American Heart Association issued a scientific statement that meditation may be a reasonable practice and intervention to help reduce the risk of cardiovascular diseases, with the qualification that meditation needs to be better defined in higher-quality clinical research of these disorders. Recent findings have also found evidence of meditation affecting migraines in adults. Mindfulness meditation may allow for a decrease in migraine episodes, and a drop in migraine medication usage.

Early low-quality and low- quantity evidence indicates that the mechanism of meditation may help with irritable bowel syndrome, , in the elderly, and post-traumatic stress disorder. Sitting in silence, body scan meditation and concentrating on breathing was shown in a 2016 review to moderately decrease symptoms of PTSD and depression in war veterans and creating resilience to stresses in active service. Researchers have found that participating in mindfulness meditation can aid insomnia patients by improving sleep quality and total wake time. Mindfulness meditation is a supportive therapy that aides in the treatment for patients diagnosed with insomnia.

In the workplace
A 2010 review of the literature on and performance in organizations found an increase in corporate meditation programs.

As of 2016 around a quarter of U.S. employers were using stress reduction initiatives. The goal was to help reduce stress and improve reactions to stress. Aetna now offers its program to its customers. also implements mindfulness, offering more than a dozen meditation courses, with the most prominent one, "Search Inside Yourself", having been implemented since 2007. offers the Mindful Leadership Program Series, a course which uses a combination of mindfulness meditation, yoga and dialogue with the intention of developing the mind's capacity to pay attention.

Many military organizations around the world have found meditation and mindfulness practice can support a range of benefits related to combat, including support for mental health, mental clarity, focus and stress control.

In school
A review of 15 peer-reviewed studies of youth meditation in schools indicated transcendental meditation a moderate effect on wellbeing and a small effect on social competence. Insufficient research has been done on the effect of meditation on academic achievement. Evidence has also shown possible improvement to stress, cognitive performance in school taught meditation.

Positive effects on emotion regulation, stress and anxiety can also be seen in students in university and nursing.

Relaxation response and biofeedback
of Harvard Medical School conducted a series of clinical tests on meditators from various disciplines, including the Transcendental Meditation technique and . In 1975, Benson published a book titled The Relaxation Response where he outlined his own version of meditation for relaxation. Also in the 1970s, the American psychologist Patricia Carrington developed a similar technique called Clinically Standardized Meditation (CSM).
(1977). 9780385113922, . .
In Norway, another sound-based method called developed a psychology of meditation and has been the subject of several scientific studies.

has been used by many researchers since the 1950s in an effort to enter deeper states of mind.

See also

Notes
Sources
Printed sources

  • (2025). 9780380815951, Harper.
  • (NB: has substantial overlap with the full report by , listed below. Overlap includes the first 6 authors of this paper, and the equivalence of Table 3 on p. 134 in this paper with Table B1 on p. 281 in the full report)

  • Reprinted as chapter 1 (pp. 5–10) in
    (1984). 9780202251363, Aldine. .
    (the book was republished in 2008: )

Web sources

Further reading

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