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Love is an emotion involving strong attraction, affection, emotional attachment or concern for a person, animal, or thing. It is expressed in many forms, encompassing a range of strong and positive emotional and mental states, from the most sublime virtue, good habit, deepest interpersonal affection, to the simplest pleasure. An example of this range of meanings is that the love of a mother differs from the love of a spouse, which, in turn, differs from the love of food.
Love is considered to be both positive and negative, with its virtue representing kindness, compassion, and affection—"the unselfish, loyal, and benevolent concern for the good of another"—and its vice representing a morality akin to vanity, selfishness, amour-propre, and egotism. It may also describe compassionate and affectionate actions towards other humans, oneself, or animals. In its various forms, love acts as a major facilitator of interpersonal relationships, and owing to its central psychological importance, is one of the most common themes in the creative arts. Love has been postulated to be a function that keeps human beings together against menaces and to facilitate the continuation of the species.
Ancient Greek philosophers identified six forms of love: familial love (storge), friendship or platonic love (philia), romantic love (eros), self-love (philautia), hospitality (xenia), and divine or unconditional love (agape). Modern authors have distinguished further varieties of love: fatuous love, unrequited love, empty love, companionate love, consummate love, compassionate love, Infatuation love (passionate love or limerence), obsessive love, amour de soi, and courtly love. Numerous cultures have also distinguished Ren, Yuanfen, Mamihlapinatapai, Cafuné, Kama, Bhakti, Mettā, Ishq, Chesed, Cupid]], charity, Saudade (and other variants or symbioses of these states), as culturally unique words, definitions, or expressions of love in regard to specified "moments" currently lacking in the English language.
The triangular theory of love suggests intimacy, passion, and commitment are core components of love. Love has additional religious or spiritual meaning. This diversity of uses and meanings, combined with the complexity of the feelings involved, makes love unusually difficult to consistently define, compared to other emotional states.
Although the nature or essence of love is a subject of frequent debate, different aspects of the word can be clarified by determining what is not love (antonyms of "love"). Love, as a general expression of positive sentiment (a stronger form of like), is commonly contrasted with hate (or neutral apathy). As a less sexual and more emotionally intimate form of romantic attachment, love is commonly contrasted with lust. As an interpersonal relationship with romantic overtones, love is sometimes contrasted with friendship, although the word love is often applied to close friendships or platonic love. Further possible ambiguities come with usages like "girlfriend", "boyfriend", and "just good friends".
origin). Museum of Anthropology in Xalapa, Veracruz, Mexico]] Abstractly discussed, love usually refers to a feeling one person experiences for another person. Love often involves caring for, or identifying with, a person or thing (), including oneself (). In addition to cross-cultural differences in understanding love, ideas about love have also changed greatly over time. Some historians date modern conceptions of romantic love to courtly Europe during or after Middle Ages, although the prior existence of romantic attachments is attested by ancient love poetry.
The complex nature of love often reduces its discourse to a thought-terminating cliché. Several common regard love, from Virgil's "Love conquers all" to The Beatles' "All You Need Is Love". St. Thomas Aquinas, following Aristotle, defines love as "to will the good of another." Bertrand Russell describes love as "absolute value," as opposed to relative value. Philosopher Gottfried Leibniz said that love is "to be delighted by the happiness of another." Meher Baba stated that in love there is a "feeling of unity" and an "active appreciation of the intrinsic worth of the object of love." Biologist Jeremy Griffith defines love as "unconditional selflessness". According to Ambrose Bierce, love is a temporary insanity curable by marriage. "Love" entry in The Devil's Dictionary at Dict.org
People can have a profound dedication and immense appreciation for an object, principle, or objective, thereby experiencing a sense of love towards it. For example, compassionate outreach and volunteer workers' "love" of their cause may sometimes be born not of interpersonal love but impersonal love, altruism, and strong spiritual or political convictions.
People can also "love" material objects, animals, or activities if they invest themselves in bonding or otherwise identifying with those things. If sexual passion is also involved, then this feeling is called paraphilia.
Throughout history, philosophy and religion have speculated about the phenomenon of love. In the 20th century, the science of psychology has studied the subject. The sciences of anthropology, neuroscience, and biology have also added to the understanding of the concept of love.
Lust is the initial passionate sexual desire that promotes mating, and involves the increased release of hormones such as testosterone and estrogen. These effects rarely last more than a few weeks or months. Attraction is the more individualized and romantic desire for a specific candidate for mating, which develops out of lust as commitment to an individual mate form. Recent studies in neuroscience have indicated that as people fall in love, the brain consistently releases a certain set of chemicals, including the neuroendocrine dopamine, norepinephrine, and serotonin, the same compounds released by amphetamine, stimulating the brain's pleasure center and leading to side effects such as increased heart rate, reduced appetite and insomnia, and an euphoria. Research indicates that this stage generally lasts from one and a half to three years. (2008). 9780030937804, Holt, Rinehart, & Winston. ISBN 9780030937804
Since the lust and attraction stages are both considered temporary, a third stage is needed to account for long-term relationships. Attachment is the human bonding that promotes relationships lasting for many years and even decades. Attachment is generally based on commitments such as marriage and children, or mutual friendship based on things like shared interests. It has been linked to higher levels of the chemicals oxytocin and vasopressin, to a greater degree than what is found in short-term relationships. Enzo Emanuele and coworkers reported the protein molecule known as the nerve growth factor (NGF) has high levels when people first fall in love, but these return to previous levels after one year.
American psychologist Zick Rubin sought to define love by psychometrics in the 1970s. His work identifies a different set of three factors that constitute love: attachment, caring, and intimacy.
Following developments in electrical theories such as Coulomb's law, which showed that positive and negative charges attract, analogs in human life were envisioned, such as "opposites attract". Research on human mating has generally found this not to be true when it comes to character and personality—people tend to like people similar to themselves. However, in a few unusual and specific domains, such as , it seems that humans prefer others who are unlike themselves (e.g., with an orthogonal immune system), perhaps because this will lead to a baby that has the best of both worlds. (1969). 9780201005608, Addison-Wesley Publishing Co. ISBN 9780201005608
In recent years, various theories of love have been developed, described in terms of attachments, ties, bonds, and affinities. Some Western culture authorities into two main components, the altruistic and the narcissistic. This view is represented in the works of Scott Peck, whose work in the field of applied psychology explored the definitions of love and evil. Peck maintains that love is a combination of the "concern for the spiritual growth of another" and simple narcissism. In combination, love is an activity, not simply a feeling.
Psychologist Erich Fromm maintained in his book The Art of Loving that love is not merely a feeling but is also actions, and that in fact the "feeling" of love is superficial in comparison to one's commitment to love via a series of loving actions over time. Fromm held that love is ultimately not a feeling at all, but rather is a commitment to, and adherence to, loving actions towards another, oneself, or many others, over a sustained duration. Fromm also described love as a conscious choice that in its early stages might originate as an involuntary feeling, but which then later no longer depends on those feelings, but rather depends only on conscious commitment.
Psychiatrist Stephanie Cacioppo states, "the need for love might be less immediate than the need to avoid danger, but it is by no means a luxury", vaguely placing love neither as a complete need or want, but in between. Professor Ingrid V. Albrecht suggests that "love participates in a unique form of practical necessity, different from both moral and psychological necessity, yet bearing resemblances to each." It is further described as "an engagement with a person as essentially particular, rather than as an instance of a rational agent in general." Ingrid's view suggests that morality or rationality are not the limiting factors of love, but that love is its own distinct need independent of those factors.
Psychologist Abraham Maslow places love as a basic and foundational human need. In his model, love is a drive theory of human behavior that a person necessitates to fulfill their psychological needs. For many people, it is usually prioritized after one's physiological and safety needs are met.
Lucretius perceives love as a disruptive and irrational force, leading to madness and despair. To him, it is an affliction distorting reality, a primal urge rooted in the biological need for species to propagate. He emphasizes love's futility and self-destructive nature. In contrast, Ovid acknowledges the pleasure of love alongside its risks and complexities. He views love as a game of manipulation and deception, marked by a blend of hedonism and cynicism. Ovid recognizes the transient nature of passion and the inevitable disappointment in romantic relationships.
Central to the concept of ren is the notion of reciprocity and empathetic understanding. It is often interpreted as akin to love (), but sometimes it also considered a stage between ai and ling, characterized by the sincere and open-hearted expression of human feelings. Through genuine love for others, individuals cultivate ren and foster deeper connections that bridge the gap between the human and the divine. Rens significance lies in its ability to foster genuine human connection and empathy, laying the foundation for harmonious relationships within society.
Mozi, a Chinese philosopher, articulated a philosophy centered on the principle of universal love. At the core of his teachings lay the belief that genuine harmony and societal well-being could only be achieved through love for others, transcending narrow self-interest. Mozi contended that universal love was not merely an abstract concept but a practical imperative, requiring individuals to actively promote the welfare of all members of society through their actions. (2026). 9789004464728 ISBN 9789004464728
In Mozi's philosophical framework, universal love was not only a moral obligation but also a divine principle originating from Heaven itself. He argued that this principle was exemplified through the actions of sage-kings from ancient times, who demonstrated how love could manifest in tangible ways within human interactions. Mozi's advocacy for universal love extended beyond interpersonal relationships; he believed it should guide the selection of rulers and the structuring of society, emphasizing reciprocity and egalitarianism as foundational principles for a harmonious social order.
In Taoism, the concept of ci (慈) embodies compassion or love, with connotations of tender nurturing akin to a mother's care. It emphasizes the idea that creatures can only thrive through raising and nurturing. Ci serves as the wellspring of compassion or love that transcends preconceived notions of individuals, instead fostering compassion for people as they are. As depicted in the Tao Te Ching, love is as open and responsive to each person's unique circumstances. Taoism juxtaposes human beings with the vastness of nature, likening the creation of people to the formation of waves in the ocean. Unlike Confucianism, Taoist responses to the loss of a loved one as portrayed in the Zhuangzi may involve either mourning their death or embracing the loss and finding joy in new creations. Taoist love seeks connections that surpass distinctions and superficial reflections. (2026). 9781315645209 ISBN 9781315645209
The concept 甘え, the dependency and emotional bonds between an infant and its mother—a bond that lays the foundation for the archetypal concept of love. Japanese culture traditionally distinguishes between marriage and love, valuing practical considerations and complementarity within family units.
In Indian literature, there are seven stages of love. The first is preska, characterized by the desire to see something pleasant. Next is abhilasa, involving constant thoughts about the beloved. Then comes raga, signifying the mental inclination to be united with the beloved. Following that is shena, which involves favorable activities directed towards the beloved. Prema is the stage where one cannot live without the beloved. Then there is rati, which involves living together with the beloved. Finally, srngara represents the playful interaction with the beloved.
Kama initially representing desire and longing. Later, Vātsyāyana, the author of the Kama Sutra, explored the concept of kama, defining it as the enjoyment of sensory pleasures with conscious awareness. However, there were also teachings cautioning against becoming overly attached to desire, advocating for the pursuit of genuine happiness through transcending desires. The Atharvaveda, presents kama as the tender affection between partners.
Nevertheless, kama is also often associated with insatiable sexual desire intertwined with intense emotions like anger and greed, portraying it as potentially harmful. Over time, kama took on Anthropomorphism qualities, evolving into the figure of the Indian Cupid.
Sneha, considered the emotional facet of love, stands in contrast to the intense passion of kama with its calm demeanor. Characterized by moisture and viscosity, the term originally denoted oiliness. It is often compounded with words for family members, reflecting attachment to individuals like mothers, fathers, and sons. Those experiencing sneha tend to exhibit great concern for one another. While traditionally attributed to sensing, the Harshacharita presents a spontaneous perspective, suggesting it lacks a definitive cause. Due to its emotional nature, sneha is transient, emerging without reason and disappearing likewise.
Preman represents a heightened stage in the development of love, characterized by the unbearable feeling of separation from the beloved. Etymologically, it denotes the sense of endearment akin to one's own. Priti, similar to preman, denotes fondness for anything delightful and familiar. It encompasses a general liking for arts, sports, and objects, while also encompassing a human instinct. Priti is built on foundations of trust and fidelity. Friendly relations ( priti) may persist between individuals but are not necessarily bound by affection ( sneha).
Vatsalya originally signifies the tender affection exhibited by a cow towards her calf, extending to denote the love nurtured by elders or superiors towards the younger or inferior. This love is exemplified in the affection of parents towards their children, a husband's care for his wife, or a ruler's concern for their subjects. Conversely, bhakti denotes the love expressed by the younger towards the seniors, exemplified in a child's devotion to their parents.
The Taj Mahal, commissioned in 1632 by the Mughal emperor Shah Jahan as a mausoleum for his beloved wife Mumtaz Mahal (who died in 1631 during childbirth), is widely regarded as one of the most iconic architectural expressions of romantic love in history. Often described as a "monument to eternal love," it exemplifies profound marital devotion and grief transformed into artistic legacy, blending elements of kama (desire) with deep emotional attachment in the cultural context of the Indian subcontinent.
In Persian mysticism, the concept of creation stems from love, viewed as the fundamental essence from which all beings originate and to which they ultimately return. This notion, influenced by neoplatonism, portrays love as both earthly and transcendent, embodying a universal striving for reunion with the divine. Scholars such as Abdolhossein Zarrinkoob trace this philosophical stance, highlighting its fusion with ancient Persian religious beliefs in figures like Ibn Arabi. According to Islamicists like William Chittick and Leonard Lewisohn, all forms of love find their origin in divine love, with creation serving as a reflection of God's beauty and love. This perspective is evident in the poetry of Hafez and others, where the concept of tajalli, or divine self-manifestation, underscores the profound spiritual significance of love as it pertains to both human relationships and devotion to God.
Hasidim, demonstrate their commitment and love for God through acts of hesed. The Torah serves as a guide, outlining how Israelites should express their love for God, show reverence for nature, and demonstrate compassion toward fellow human beings. The commandment "Love thy neighbor as thyself" from the Torah's, gives emphasis on ethical obligations and impartiality in judgment. It highlights the importance of treating all individuals equally before the law, rejecting favoritism and bribery; deuteronomy further emphasizes impartiality in judgment. (2026). 9780195328820 ISBN 9780195328820
As for love between marital partners, this is deemed an essential ingredient to life: "See life with the wife you love" (Ecclesiastes ). Rabbi David Wolpe writes that "love is not only about the feelings of the lover... It is when one person believes in another person and shows it." He further states that "love... is a feeling that expresses itself in action. What we really feel is reflected in what we do." The biblical book Song of Solomon is considered a romantically phrased metaphor of love between God and his people, but in its plain reading it reads like a love song. The 20th-century rabbi Eliyahu Eliezer Dessler is frequently quoted as defining love from the Jewish point of view as "giving without expecting to take".
There are several Greek words for "love" that are regularly referred to in Christian circles.
Christianity believe that to love God with all your heart, mind, and strength and love your neighbourhood as yourself are the two most important things in life (the greatest commandment of the Jewish Torah, according to Jesus; cf. Gospel of Mark ). Saint Augustine summarized this when he wrote "Love God, and do as thou wilt."
The Old Testament is said to place greater emphasis on "the active character of love" than the New, which shifts its focus to the love of God "as a principle pervading the world". Out of the three divine virtues (faith, hope, and love) in Christianity, it is said that love has the highest status (1 Cor 13,13). Paul the Apostle similarly glorified love as the most important virtue of all. Describing love in the famous poetic interpretation in 1 Corinthians, he wrote, "Love is patient, love is kind. It does not envy, it does not boast, it is not proud. It is not rude, it is not self-seeking, it is not easily angered, it keeps no record of wrongs. Love does not delight in evil but rejoices with the truth. It always protects, always trusts, always hopes, and always perseveres." ()
John the Apostle wrote, "For God so loved the world that he gave his one and only Son, that whoever believes in him shall not perish but have eternal life. For God did not send his Son into the world to condemn the world, but to save the world through him." (John ) John also wrote, "Dear friends, let us love one another for love comes from God. Everyone who loves has been born of God and knows God. Whoever does not love does not know God, because God is love." ()
Augustine wrote that one must be able to decipher the difference between love and lust. Lust, according to Augustine, is an overindulgence, but to love and be loved is what he has sought for his entire life. He even says, "I was in love with love." Finally, he does fall in love and is loved back, by God. Augustine says the only one who can love you truly and fully is God because love with a human only allows for flaws such as "jealousy, suspicion, fear, anger, and contention." According to Augustine, to love God is "to attain the peace which is yours."
Augustine regards the duplex commandment of love in as the heart of Christian faith and the interpretation of the Bible. After the review of Christian doctrine, Augustine treats the problem of love in terms of use and enjoyment until the end of Book I of De Doctrina Christiana (1.22.21–1.40.44).
Christian theologians see God as the source of love, which is mirrored in humans and their own loving relationships. Influential Christian theologian C. S. Lewis wrote a book called The Four Loves. Benedict XVI named his first encyclical God is love. He said that a human being, created in the image of God, who is love, is able to practice love; to give himself to God and others () and by receiving and experiencing God's love in contemplation (). This life of love, according to him, is the life of the saints such as Mother Teresa and Mary, the mother of Jesus and is the direction Christians take when they believe that God loves them. Teresa described feeling unloved as "the most terrible poverty".
Pope Francis asserts that the "Cross (Jesus crucified) is the greatest meaning of the greatest love," and in the crucifixion is found everything, all knowledge and the entirety of God's love. Pope Francis taught that "True love is both loving and letting oneself be loved... what is important in love is not our loving, but allowing ourselves to be loved by God." And so, in the analysis of a Catholic theologian, for Pope Francis, "the key to love... is not our activity. It is the activity of the greatest, and the source, of all the powers in the universe: God's."
In Christianity the practical definition of love is summarized by Thomas Aquinas, who defined love as "to will the good of another," or to desire for another to succeed. This is an explanation of the Christian need to love others, including their enemies. Thomas Aquinas explains that Christian love is motivated by the need to see others succeed in life, to be good people.
Regarding love for enemies, Jesus is quoted in the Gospel of Matthew:
Tertullian wrote regarding love for enemies: "Our individual, extraordinary, and perfect goodness consists in loving our enemies. To love one's friends is common practice, to love one's enemies only among Christians."
The Qur'an exhorts Muslim believers to treat , with or "deep kindness" as stated in Surah . is also used by the Qur'an to describe the love and kindness that children must show to their parents.
, or divine love, is emphasized by Sufism in the Islamic tradition. Practitioners of Sufism believe that love is a projection of the essence of God into the universe. God desires to recognize beauty, and as if one looks at a mirror to see oneself, God "looks" at himself within the dynamics of nature. Since everything is a reflection of God, the school of Sufism practices seeing the beauty inside the apparently ugly. Sufism is often referred to as the religion of love. (2026). 9781139087599 ISBN 9781139087599 God in Sufism is referred to in three main terms—Lover, Loved, and Beloved—with the last of these terms often seen in Sufi poetry. A common viewpoint of Sufism is that through love, humankind can return to its inherent purity and grace. The saints of Sufism are infamous for being "drunk" due to their love of God; hence, the constant reference to wine in Sufi poetry and music.
Baháʼu'lláh, the founder of the Bahá'í Faith, emphasizes the importance of observing God's commandments out of love, describing them as "the lamps of My loving providence" and urging followers to adhere to them for "the love of My beauty." This framing positions love as the motive force for individuals striving to follow divine laws. In Bahá'í understanding, love is considered the fundamental universal law. ʻAbdu'l-Bahá, Bahá'u'lláh's son and successor, describes love as the "most great law" and the force that binds together the diverse elements of the material world. He further asserts that love is the establisher of true civilization and the source of glory for every race and nation.
From the Bahá'í perspective, God's revelation of laws to humanity is an act of love, and the legitimate reason for their application and adherence lies in their expression of love. This understanding underscores the intimate connection between spiritual principles, individual growth, and the practice of religious law within the Bahá'í Faith.
In Theravada, love and sympathy play key roles in shaping ethical behavior and social actions. Sympathy motivates altruistic acts like teaching and helping others, while loving-kindness is cultivated primarily through meditation, acting as a form of mental liberation. Together, these qualities encourage impartial love and empathy, fostering personal peace and societal harmony, and supporting both individual growth and a more compassionate world.
In Mahayana, love is understood as profound compassion and a commitment to mutual support. This concept is central to the Bodhisattva ideal, where practitioners vow to help all beings reach enlightenment, often delaying their own liberation to support others. Mahayana teachings emphasize selfless love, blurring the boundary between self and others, and seeing all beings as interconnected. This love, framed within the Mahayana understanding of reality as ultimately illusory, transcends ego and guides both the practitioner and others toward collective liberation.
In Vajrayana, love is a transformative force that, when disciplined, leads to spiritual enlightenment. Rather than rejecting desire, Vajrayana encourages the refinement of love and other potent energies as pathways to higher consciousness. By controlling and sublimating these energies, often represented through sexual energy as a life force (Kundalini), practitioners unite the principles of wisdom and skill. Here, love becomes a symbol and method for ultimate unity, guiding practitioners to enlightenment by transforming personal desire into a universal connection.
In contrast to , —or refers to "elevated" love. is compassion and mercy, which impels one to help reduce the suffering of others. is a Sanskrit term meaning "loving devotion to the divine." A person who practices is called a . Hindu writers, theologians, and philosophers have distinguished nine forms of , which can be found in the Bhagavata Purana and works by Tulsidas. The philosophical work Narada Bhakti Sutra, written by an unknown author (presumed to be Narada), distinguishes eleven forms of love.
In certain Vaishnava sects within Hinduism, attaining unadulterated, unconditional, and incessant love for the Godhead is considered the foremost goal of life. Gaudiya Vaishnavas, who worship Krishna as the Supreme Personality of Godhead and the cause of all causes, consider Love for Godhead, (), to act in two ways: and (union and separation)—two opposites.
In the condition of separation, there is an acute yearning for being with the beloved and in the condition of union, there is supreme happiness. Gaudiya Vaishnavas consider that Krishna-prema (love for Godhead) burns away one's material desires, pierces the heart, and washes away everything—one's pride, one's religious rules, and one's shyness. Krishna-prema is considered to make one drown in the ocean of transcendental ecstasy and pleasure. The love of Radha, a cowherd girl, for Krishna is often cited as the supreme example of love for Godhead by Gaudiya Vaishnavas. Radha is considered to be the internal potency of Krishna, and is the supreme lover of Godhead. Her example of love is considered to be beyond the understanding of the material realm, as it surpasses any form of selfish love or lust that is visible in the material world. The reciprocal love between Radha (the supreme lover) and Krishna (God as the Supremely Loved) is the subject of many poetic compositions in India, such as the Gita Govinda of Jayadeva and Hari Bhakti Shuddhodhaya.
In the tradition within Hinduism, it is believed that execution of devotional service to God leads to the development of Love for God (), and as love for God increases in the heart, the more one becomes free from material contamination (). Being perfectly in love with God or Krishna makes one perfectly free from material contamination, and this is the ultimate way of salvation or liberation. In this tradition, salvation or liberation is considered inferior to love, and just an incidental by-product. Being absorbed in Love for God is considered to be the perfection of life.
Anthropology perspectives relate love with power, inequality, and governance, that is shaped by kinship, religion, Social class, race, and nationalism. Love can then be a form of resistance and solidarity, as in queer relationships. Love is also shaped by governments and markets through regulation and commodification. For example, colonial restrictions on intimacy or conspiracy theories such as love jihad.
Michael Hardt, drawing on Baruch Spinoza, points that love can be used for societal transformation and that political love is boundless and embracing of differences.
Love as robust concern defines love as a deep care for the beloved's well-being without creating a union. This view prioritizes concern for the beloved's welfare, but critics argue it misses the interactive and emotional aspects of love. Supporters maintain that love's essence lies in respecting the beloved's autonomy. Monique Wonderly adds that attachment complements this view, making the beloved important for both themselves and the lover.
Love as valuing includes two approaches: appraisal and bestowal of value. J. David Velleman argues that appraisal responds to the inherent dignity in others, making love a unique emotional vulnerability. However, this view struggles to explain love's selectivity and constancy. Peter Singer bestowal view posits that love creates intrinsic value in the beloved, yet critics question how this explains love's discernment.
Love as an emotion is seen either as an emotion proper or as an emotion complex. Emotion properly treats love as a specific motivational response, but some find this too simplistic. The emotion complex perspective suggests that love is a dynamic, interconnected emotional history shaped by the relationship. Figures like Annette Baier and Neera K. Badhwar highlight emotional interdependence, though critics wonder how this distinguishes love from other relationships and defines its unique narrative.
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