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Ganesha or Ganesh (, , ), also known as Ganapati, Vinayaka and Pillaiyar, is one of the best-known and most revered and worshipped deities in the Hindu deities and is the Supreme God in the Ganapatya sect."Ganesha, most popular deity"
Although Ganesha has many attributes, he is readily identified by his Asiatic Elephant head and four arms.Martin-Dubost, p. 2. He is widely revered, more specifically, as the remover of obstacles and bringer of good luck;For Ganesha's role as an eliminator of obstacles, see commentary on , verse 12 in the patron of The arts and ; and the deva of intellect and wisdom. As the god of beginnings, he is honoured at the start of rites and ceremonies. Ganesha is also invoked during writing sessions as a patron of letters and learning., Vigna means obstacles Nasha means destroy. These ideas are so common that Courtright uses them in the title of his book, Ganesha: Lord of Obstacles, Lord of Beginnings. Several texts relate anecdotes associated with his birth and exploits.
Ganesha is mentioned in Hindu texts between the 1st century BCE and 2nd century CE, and a few Ganesha images from the 4th and 5th centuries CE have been documented by scholars.Narain, A.K. ": The Idea and the Icon" in Hindu texts identify him as the son of Parvati and Shiva of the Shaivism tradition, but he is a pan-Hindu god found in its various traditions. In the Ganapatya tradition of Hinduism, Ganesha is the Supreme Being.For history of the development of the and their relationship to the wide geographic dispersion of Ganesha worship, see: Chapter 6, "The " in: . The principal texts on Ganesha include the Ganesha Purana, the Mudgala Purana and the Ganapati Atharvasirsha.
The name Ganesha is a Sanskrit compound, joining the words gana (), meaning a 'group, multitude, or categorical system' and isha (), meaning 'lord or master'.* Narain, A. K. ": A Protohistory of the Idea and the Icon". .
Vinayaka (विनायक; ) or Binayaka is a common name for Ganesha that appears in the s and in Buddhist Tantras. This name is reflected in the naming of the eight famous Ganesha temples in Maharashtra known as the Ashtavinayak (, ).For the history of the sites and a description of pilgrimage practices related to them, see: 
/ref> His depictions are found throughout India.
Hindu denominations worship him regardless of affiliations.
Etymology and other names
Ganesha has been ascribed many other titles and epithets, including Ganapati ( Ganpati), Vighneshvara, and Pillaiyar. The Hindu title of respect Shri (; IAST: ; also spelled Sri or Shree) is often added before his name.
The word gaṇa when associated with Ganesha is often taken to refer to the gaṇas, a troop of semi-divine beings that form part of the retinue of Shiva, Ganesha's father.For the derivation of the name and relationship with the , see: The term more generally means a category, class, community, association, or corporation. Some commentators interpret the name "Lord of the " to mean "Lord of Hosts" or "Lord of created categories", such as the elements.The word gaṇa is interpreted in this metaphysical sense by Bhāskararāya in his commentary on the . See in particular commentary on verse 6 including names and in: . Ganapati (गणपति; ), a synonym for Ganesha, is a compound composed of , meaning "group", and , meaning "ruler" or "lord". Though the earliest mention of the word Ganapati is found in hymn 2.23.1 of the 2nd-millennium BCE Rigveda, it is uncertain that the Vedic term referred specifically to Ganesha. Rigveda Mandala 2 , Hymn 2.23.1, Wikisource, Quote: गणानां त्वा गणपतिं हवामहे कविं कवीनामुपमश्रवस्तमम् । ज्येष्ठराजं ब्रह्मणां ब्रह्मणस्पत आ नः शृण्वन्नूतिभिः सीद सादनम् ॥१॥; For translation, see The Amarakosha,
A prominent name for Ganesha in the Tamil language is Pillai () or Pillaiyar (பிள்ளையார்).. A. K. Narain differentiates these terms by saying that pillai means a "child" while pillaiyar means a "noble child". He adds that the words pallu, pella, and pell in the Dravidian family of languages signify "tooth or tusk", also "elephant tooth or tusk".Narain, A. K. ": The Idea and the Icon". Anita Raina Thapan notes that the root word pille in the name Pillaiyar might have originally meant "the young of the elephant", because the Pali word pillaka means "a young elephant".
In the Burmese language, Ganesha is known as Maha Peinne (မဟာပိန္နဲ, ), derived from Pali (မဟာဝိနာယက). The widespread name of Ganesha in Thailand is Khanet (can be transliterated as Ganet), or the more official title of Phra Phi Khanet. The earliest images and mention lists Ganesha as a major deity in present-day Indonesia, Thailand, Cambodia and Vietnam dating to the 7th and 8th centuries, and these mirror Indian examples of the 5th century or earlier. In , among Sinhalese people Buddhists, he is known as Gana deviyo, and revered along with Vishnu, Kartikeya, Buddha and other deities.
Ganesha images were prevalent in many parts of India by the 6th century. The 13th century statue pictured is typical of Ganesha statuary from 900 to 1200, after Ganesha had been well-established as an independent deity with his own sect. This example features some of Ganesha's common iconographic elements. A virtually identical statue has been dated between 973 and 1200 by Paul Martin-Dubost,, p. 213. In the upper right corner, the statue is dated as (973–1200). and another similar statue is dated 12th century by Pratapaditya Pal.Pal, p. vi. The picture on this page depicts a stone statue in the Los Angeles County Museum of Art that is dated as c. 12th century. Pal shows an example of this form dated c. 13th century on p. viii. Ganesha has the head of an elephant and a big belly. This statue has four arms, which is common in depictions of Ganesha. He holds his own broken tusk in his lower-right hand and holds a delicacy, which he samples with his trunk, in his lower-left hand. The motif of Ganesha turning his trunk sharply to his left to taste a sweet in his lower-left hand is a particularly archaic feature. A more primitive statue in one of the Ellora Caves with this general form has been dated to the 7th century.See photograph 2, "Large Ganesh", in: Details of the other hands are difficult to make out on the statue shown. In the standard configuration, Ganesha typically holds an Parashu or a Ankus in one upper arm and a pasha (noose) in the other upper arm. In rare instances, he may be depicted with a human head.
The influence of this old constellation of iconographic elements can still be seen in contemporary representations of Ganesha. In one modern form, the only variation from these old elements is that the lower-right hand does not hold the broken tusk but is turned towards the viewer in a gesture of protection or fearlessness (Abhaya mudra).In:
The same combination of four arms and attributes occurs in statues of Ganesha dancing, which is a very popular theme.In:
Ganesha's earliest name was Ekadanta (One Tusked), referring to his single whole tusk, the other being broken. Some of the earliest images of Ganesha show him holding his broken tusk. The importance of this distinctive feature is reflected in the Mudgala Purana, which states that the name of Ganesha's second incarnation is Ekadanta.Granoff, Phyllis. " as Metaphor". Ganesha's protruding belly appears as a distinctive attribute in his earliest statuary, which dates to the Gupta period (4th to 6th centuries)."Ganesha in Indian Plastic Art" and Passim. This feature is so important that according to the Mudgala Purana, two different incarnations of Ganesha use names based on it: Lambodara (Pot Belly, or, literally, Hanging Belly) and Mahodara (Great Belly).Granoff, Phyllis. " as Metaphor". Both names are Sanskrit compounds describing his belly (IAST: ).For translation of Udara as "belly" see: The Brahmanda Purana says that Ganesha has the name Lambodara because all the universes (i.e., World egg; IAST: ) of the past, present, and future are present in him.
The number of Ganesha's arms varies; his best-known forms have between two and sixteen arms.For an iconographic chart showing number of arms and attributes classified by source and named form, see: Appendix I. Many depictions of Ganesha feature four arms, which is mentioned in Puranic sources and codified as a standard form in some iconographic texts.For history and prevalence of forms with various arms and the four-armed form as one of the standard types see: . His earliest images had two arms.
Forms with 14 and 20 arms appeared in Central India during the 9th and the 10th centuries.. The serpent is a common feature in Ganesha iconography and appears in many forms.
Ganesha is often described as red in colour. Specific colours are associated with certain forms. Many examples of color associations with specific meditation forms are prescribed in the Sritattvanidhi, a treatise on Hindu iconography. For example, white is associated with his representations as Heramba-Ganapati and Rina-Mochana-Ganapati (Ganapati Who Releases from Bondage). Ekadanta-Ganapati is visualised as blue during meditation in that form.
Ganesha is often shown riding on or attended by a mouse.* . Preface.
Martin-Dubost says that the rat began to appear as the principal vehicle in sculptures of Ganesha in central and western India during the 7th century; the rat was always placed close to his feet.See note on figure 43 in: . The mouse as a mount first appears in written sources in the Matsya Purana and later in the Brahmananda Purana and Ganesha Purana, where Ganesha uses it as his vehicle in his last incarnation.Citations to Matsya Purana 260.54, Brahmananda Purana Lalitamahatmya XXVII, and Ganesha Purana 2.134–136 are provided by: . The Ganapati Atharvashirsa includes a meditation verse on Ganesha that describes the mouse appearing on his flag.. The names (mouse-mount) and (rat-banner) appear in the Ganesha Sahasranama.For see v. 6. For Ākhuketana see v. 67. In: . (, 1991). Source text with a commentary by in Sanskrit.
The mouse is interpreted in several ways. According to Grimes, "Many, if not most of those who interpret 's mouse, do so negatively; it symbolizes as well as desire".For a review of different interpretations, and quotation, see: . Along these lines, Michael Wilcockson says it symbolises those who wish to overcome desires and be less selfish. A Student's Guide to AS Religious Studies for the OCR Specification, by Michael Wilcockson, p. 117 Krishan notes that the rat is destructive and a menace to crops. The Sanskrit word (mouse) is derived from the root (stealing, robbing). It was essential to subdue the rat as a destructive pest, a type of vighna (impediment) that needed to be overcome. According to this theory, showing Ganesha as master of the rat demonstrates his function as Vigneshvara (Lord of Obstacles) and gives evidence of his possible role as a folk grāma-devatā (village deity) who later rose to greater prominence. Martin-Dubost notes a view that the rat is a symbol suggesting that Ganesha, like the rat, penetrates even the most secret places.*
Krishan notes that some of Ganesha's names reflect shadings of multiple roles that have evolved over time. Dhavalikar ascribes the quick ascension of Ganesha in the Hindu pantheon, and the emergence of the , to this shift in emphasis from (obstacle-creator) to (obstacle-averter).For Dhavilkar's views on Ganesha's shifting role, see Dhavalikar, M.K. ": Myth and reality" in However, both functions continue to be vital to his character.
Some devotees see similarities between the shape of Ganesha's body in iconography and the shape of Om in the Devanagari and Tamil language scripts.For examples of both, see:
The family includes his brother, the god of war, Kartikeya, who is also called Skanda and Murugan.For a summary of variant names for Skanda, see: . Regional differences dictate the order of their births. In northern India, Skanda is generally said to be the elder, while in the south, Ganesha is considered the firstborn. p.4. In North India, Skanda was an important martial deity from about 500 BCE to about 600 CE, after which worship of him declined significantly. As Skanda fell, Ganesha rose. Several stories tell of sibling rivalry between the brothers. and may reflect sectarian tensions..
Ganesha's marital status, the subject of considerable scholarly review, varies widely in mythological stories.For a review, see: Cohen, Lawrence. "The Wives of ". One pattern of myths identifies Ganesha as an unmarried Brahmacharya.In:
This view is common in southern India and parts of northern India.For discussion on celibacy of Ganesha, see: Cohen, Lawrence, "The Wives of ", in: . Another popularly-accepted mainstream pattern associates him with the concepts of Buddhi (intellect), Siddhi (spiritual power), and Riddhi (prosperity); these qualities are personified as goddesses, said to be Ganesha's wives.For a review of associations with Buddhi, Siddhi, Riddhi, and other figures, and the statement "In short the spouses of are the personifications of his powers, manifesting his functional features...", see: . He also may be shown with a single consort or a nameless servant (Sanskrit: ).For single consort or a nameless (servant), see: Cohen, Lawrence, "The Wives of ", in: . Another pattern connects Ganesha with the goddess of culture and the arts, Sarasvati or (particularly in Maharashtra).For associations with Śarda and Sarasvati and the identification of those goddesses with one another, see: Cohen, Lawrence, "The Wives of ", in: . He is also associated with the goddess of luck and prosperity, Lakshmi.For associations with Lakshmi see: Cohen, Lawrence, "The Wives of ", in: . Another pattern, mainly prevalent in the Bengal region, links Ganesha with the banana tree, Kala Bo.For discussion of the Kala Bou, see: Cohen, Lawrence, "The Wives of ", in: .
The Shiva Purana says that Ganesha had begotten two sons: (safety) and (profit). In northern Indian variants of this story, the sons are often said to be (auspiciousness) and .For statement regarding sons, see: Cohen, Lawrence, "The Wives of ", in: . The 1975 Hindi film Jai Santoshi Maa shows Ganesha married to Riddhi and Siddhi and having a daughter named Santoshi Mata, the goddess of satisfaction. This story has no Puranic basis, but Anita Raina Thapan and Lawrence Cohen cite Santoshi Ma's cult as evidence of Ganesha's continuing evolution as a popular deity.In:
Ganesha is a non-sectarian deity. Hindus of all denominations invoke him at the beginning of prayers, important undertakings, and religious ceremonies.For worship of Ganesha by "followers of all sects and denominations, Saivites, Vaisnavites, Buddhists, and Jainas" see Dancers and musicians, particularly in southern India, begin art performances such as the Bharatnatyam dance with a prayer to Ganesha. such as Om Shri Namah (Om, salutation to the Illustrious Ganesha) are often used. One of the most famous mantras associated with Ganesha is Om Ganapataye Namah (Om, , Salutation to the Lord of Hosts).
Devotees offer Ganesha sweets such as and small sweet balls called . He is often shown carrying a bowl of sweets, called a .The term modaka applies to all regional varieties of cakes or sweets offered to Ganesha. . Because of his identification with the color red, he is often worshipped with red sandalwood paste (). or red flowers. grass ( Cynodon dactylon) and other materials are also used in his worship.
Festivals associated with Ganesh are Ganesh Chaturthi or Vināyaka chaturthī in the paksha (the fourth day of the waxing moon) in the month of Bhadrapada (August/September) and the Ganesh Jayanti (Ganesha's birthday) celebrated on the cathurthī of the (fourth day of the waxing moon) in the month of Maagha (January/February)." p. 215
Today, Hindus across India celebrate the Ganapati festival with great fervour, though it is most popular in the state of Maharashtra.For Ganesh Chaturthi as the most popular festival in Maharashtra, see: , p. 226." in a Regional Setting". , p. 202–247. The festival also assumes huge proportions in Mumbai, Pune, and in the surrounding belt of Ashtavinayaka temples.
There are many other important Ganesha temples at the following locations: Siddhivinayak temple in Mumbai, Ganpatipule temple at Ganpatipule, Binkhambi Ganesh mandir in Kolhapur, Jai Vinayak temple in Jaigad, Ratnagiri, Wai in Maharashtra; Ujjain in Madhya Pradesh; Jodhpur, Nagaur and Raipur (Pali) in Rajasthan; Baidyanath in Bihar; Baroda, Dholaka, and Valsad in Gujarat and Dhundiraj Temple in Varanasi, Uttar Pradesh. Prominent Ganesha temples in southern India include the following: Kanipakam in Andhra Pradesh; the Rockfort Ucchi Pillayar Temple at Tiruchirapalli, Puliakulam Munthi Vinayagar Temple at Coimbatore and Karpaga Vinayagar Temple in Pillayarpatti which is a town named after Ganesha in Tamil Nadu; Kottarakkara, Trivandrum, Madhur Temple in Kerala; Hampi, and Idagunji in Karnataka; and Bhadrachalam in Telangana., p. 91–92
T. A. Gopinatha notes, "Every village however small has its own image of (Vigneshvara) with or without a temple to house it in. At entrances of villages and forts, below (Sacred fig) trees ... in a niche ... in temples of (Vishnu) as well as (Shiva) and also in separate shrines specially constructed in temples ... the figure of is invariably seen."T.A. Gopinatha; Elements of Hindu Iconography, p. 47–48 as quoted in Ganesha temples have also been built outside of India, including Southeast Asia, Nepal (including the four Vinayaka shrines in the Kathmandu Valley),, p. 147–158 and in several western countries.
Ganesha appeared in his classic form as a clearly-recognizable deity with well-defined iconographic attributes in the early 4th to 5th centuries CE. Some of the earliest known Ganesha images include two images found in eastern Afghanistan. The first image was discovered in the ruins north of Kabul, along with those of Surya and Shiva and is dated to the 4th century. The second image found in Gardez, known as the Gardez Ganesha, has an inscription on the pedestal that has helped date it to the 5th century. Another Ganesha sculpture is embedded in the walls of Cave 6 of the Udayagiri Caves in Madhya Pradesh. This is dated to the 5th century. An early iconic image of Ganesha with elephant head, a bowl of sweets and a goddess sitting in his lap has been found in the ruins of the Bhumara Temple in Madhya Pradesh, and this is dated to the 5th-century Gupta Empire. Other recent discoveries, such as one from Ramgarh Hill, are also dated to the 4th or 5th century. An independent cult with Ganesha as the primary deity was well established by about the 10th century. Narain summarises the lack of evidence about Ganesha's history before the 5th century as follows:
The evidence for an even more ancient Ganesha, suggests Narain, may reside outside Brahmanic or Sanskritic traditions, or outside geocultural boundaries of India. Ganesha appears in China by the 6th century and his artistic images in temple settings as the remover of obstacles in South Asia appear by about 400 CE. He is, states Bailey, recognised as goddess Parvati's son and integrated into Shaivism theology by early centuries of the common era.
Thapan's book on the development of Ganesha devotes a chapter to speculations about the role elephants had in early India but concludes that "although by the second century CE the elephant-headed form exists it cannot be presumed to represent . There is no evidence of a deity by this name having an elephant or elephant-headed form at this early stage. had yet to make his debut.", p. 75.
The Pashupati seal (c. 2300 BCE - 2000 BCE) depicts 4 animals including an elephant around a deity who is claimed by some to be Shiva. Brown notes that this seal indicates the sacredness of elephants before Vedic period. One theory of the origin of Ganesha is that he gradually came to prominence in connection with the four Vinayakas ().In:
In the Yajurveda, the were a group of four troublesome demons who created obstacles and difficulties Aitareya Brāhmana, I, 21. but who were easily propitiated.Bhandarkar. Vaishnavism, Saivism and other Minor Sects. p. 147–148. The name Vināyaka is a common name for Ganesha both in the and in Buddhist Tantras. Krishan is one of the academics who accept this view, stating flatly of Ganesha, "He is a non-Vedic god. His origin is to be traced to the four Vināyakas, evil spirits, of the Mānavagŗhyasūtra (7th–4th century BCE) who cause various types of evil and suffering"., p. vii. Depictions of elephant-headed human figures, which some identify with Ganesha, appear in Indian art and Indian coinage as early as the 2nd century.For a discussion of early depiction of elephant-headed figures in art, see or According to Ellawala, the elephant-headed Ganesha as lord of the Ganas was known to the people of Sri Lanka in the early pre-Christian era.
The Sangam period Tamil poet Avvaiyar (3rd century BCE), invokes Ganesha while preparing the invitation to the three Tamil Kingdoms for giving away in marriage of Angavay and Sangavay of Ceylon in marriage to the King of Tirukoilur (pp. 57–59).
Two verses in texts belonging to Yajurveda, (2.9.1)The verse : " | | ||" and (10.1),The verse: " | ||" appeal to a deity as "the tusked one" (), "elephant-faced" (Hastimukha), and "with a curved trunk" (). These names are suggestive of Ganesha, and the 14th-century commentator Sayana explicitly establishes this identification.For text of 2.9.1 and 10.1 and identification by in his commentary on the , see: Rocher, Ludo, "'s Rise to Prominence in Sanskrit Literature" in . The description of Dantin, possessing a twisted trunk () and holding a corn-sheaf, a sugar cane, and a club,Taittiriya Aranyaka, X, 1, 5. is so characteristic of the Puranic Ganapati that Heras says "we cannot resist to accept his full identification with this Vedic Dantin"., p. 28. However, Krishan considers these hymns to be post-Vedic additions.In:
Thapan reports that these passages are "generally considered to have been interpolated". Dhavalikar says, "the references to the elephant-headed deity in the have been proven to be very late interpolations, and thus are not very helpful for determining the early formation of the deity".*Thapan, p. 101. For interpolation into the and .
Ganesha does not appear in the Indian epic literature that is dated to the Vedic period. A late interpolation to the epic poem Mahabharata (1.1.75–79) says that the sage Vyasa () asked Ganesha to serve as his scribe to transcribe the poem as he dictated it to him. Ganesha agreed but only on the condition that Vyasa recites the poem uninterrupted, that is, without pausing. The sage agreed but found that to get any rest he needed to recite very complex passages so Ganesha would have to ask for clarifications. The story is not accepted as part of the original text by the editors of the critical edition of the Mahabharata,Rocher, Ludo "Ganesa's Rise to Prominence in Sanskrit Literature". Brown, pp. 71–72. in which the twenty-line story is relegated to a footnote in an appendix. Vol. 1 Part 2. Critical edition, p. 884. The story of Ganesha acting as the scribe occurs in 37 of the 59 manuscripts consulted during the preparation of the critical edition.For a statement that "Fifty-nine manuscripts of the were consulted for the reconstruction of the critical edition. The story of acting as the scribe for writing the occurs in 37 manuscripts", see: . Ganesha's association with mental agility and learning is one reason he is shown as scribe for 's dictation of the Mahabharata in this interpolation.Brown, p. 4. Richard L. Brown dates the story to the 8th century, and Moriz Winternitz concludes that it was known as early as c. 900, but it was not added to the Mahabharata some 150 years later. Winternitz also notes that a distinctive feature in manuscripts of the Mahabharata is their omission of this Ganesha legend.Winternitz, Moriz. " in the ". Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland (1898:382). Citation provided by Rocher, Ludo. "'s Rise to Prominence in Sanskrit Literature". , p. 80. The term is found in some recensions of the and that are regarded as interpolations.For interpolations of the term vināyaka see: . A reference to ("Creator of Obstacles") in Vanaparva is also believed to be an interpolation and does not appear in the critical edition.For reference to and translation as "Creator of Obstacles", see: .
In his survey of Ganesha's rise to prominence in Sanskrit literature, Ludo Rocher notes that:Rocher, Ludo. "'s Rise to Prominence in Sanskrit Literature". , p. 73.
Ganesha's rise to prominence was codified in the 9th century when he was formally included as one of the five primary deities of Smartism. Adi Shankara popularised the "worship of the five forms" (Panchayatana puja) system among orthodox Brahmins of the Smarta tradition.* For Dating of the and its connection with Brahmins.
This worship practice invokes the five deities Ganesha, Vishnu, Shiva, Devi, and Surya.
The date of composition for the Ganesha Purana and the Mudgala Purana—and their dating relative to one another—has sparked academic debate. Both works were developed over time and contain age-layered strata. Anita Thapan reviews comment about dating and provide her own judgment. "It seems likely that the core of the Ganesha Purana appeared around the twelfth and thirteenth centuries", she says, "but was later interpolated."For a review of major differences of opinions between scholars on dating, see: . Lawrence W. Preston considers the most reasonable date for the Ganesha Purana to be between 1100 and 1400, which coincides with the apparent age of the sacred sites mentioned by the text.Preston, Lawrence W., "Subregional Religious Centers in the History of Maharashtra: The Sites Sacred to ", in: N.K. Wagle, ed., Images of Maharashtra: A Regional Profile of India. p. 103.
R.C. Hazra suggests that the Mudgala Purana is older than the Ganesha Purana, which he dates between 1100 and 1400.R.C. Hazra, "The ", Journal of the Ganganatha Jha Research Institute (1951); 79–99. However, Phyllis Granoff finds problems with this relative dating and concludes that the Mudgala Purana was the last of the philosophical texts concerned with Ganesha. She bases her reasoning on the fact that, among other internal evidence, the Mudgala Purana specifically mentions the Ganesha Purana as one of the four Puranas (the Brahma, the Brahmanda, the Ganesha, and the Mudgala Puranas) which deal at length with Ganesha.Phyllis Granoff, " as Metaphor", in , note 2. While the kernel of the text must be old, it was interpolated until the 17th and 18th centuries as the worship of Ganapati became more important in certain regions., pp. 30–33. Another highly regarded scripture in the Ganapatya tradition, the Sanskrit Ganapati Atharvashirsa, was probably composed during the 16th or 17th century..
The Ganesha Sahasranama is part of the Puranic literature, and is a litany of a thousand names and attributes of Ganesha. Each name in the sahasranama conveys a different meaning and symbolises a different aspect of Ganesha. Versions of the Ganesha Sahasranama are found in the Ganesha Purana.
Ganesha was particularly worshipped by traders and merchants, who went out of India for commercial ventures.. From approximately the 10th century onwards, new networks of exchange developed including the formation of trade guilds and a resurgence of money circulation. During this time, Ganesha became the principal deity associated with traders., p. 170. The earliest inscription invoking Ganesha before any other deity is associated with the merchant community., p. 152.
Hindus migrated to Maritime Southeast Asia and took their culture, including Ganesha, with them. Statues of Ganesha are found throughout the region, often beside Shiva sanctuaries. The forms of Ganesha found in the Hindu art of the Philippines, Java, Bali, and Borneo show specific regional influences., p. 55–66. The spread of Hindu culture throughout Southeast Asia established Ganesha worship in modified forms in Burma, Cambodia, and Thailand. In Indochina, Hinduism and Buddhism were practised side by side, and mutual influences can be seen in the iconography of Ganesha in the region. In Thailand, Cambodia, and among the Hindu classes of the Chams in Vietnam, Ganesha was mainly thought of as a remover of obstacles..
Amongst Indonesians who predominantly profess the Islamic faith, Ganesha is not worshipped, but seen as a symbol of knowledge, wisdom and education. Many Indonesian public universities feature Ganesha's likeness in their grounds or logo. Blitar, Salatiga City, and Kediri Regency are among three local governments that include Ganesha in their regency/city official seals. Indonesia is the only country to have featured Ganesha on its banknotes (20 thousand denomination, between 1998 and 2008), although it is no longer in circulation.
Before the arrival of Islam, Afghanistan had close cultural ties with India, and the adoration of both Hindu and Buddhist deities was practised. Examples of sculptures from the 5th to the 7th centuries have survived, suggesting that the worship of Ganesha was then in vogue in the region.In:
Ganapati (also known as Vinayaka in Buddhism) was adopted as a deity into Indian Vajrayana Buddhism and Ganapati (Tibetan: tshogs bdag) remains a deity in the Tibetan Buddhism pantheon., p. 185.Wayman, Alex (2006). Chanting the Names of Manjushri. Motilal Banarsidass Publishers: p. 76. Wilkinson, Christopher. "The Tantric Ganesa: Text Preserved in the Tibetan Canon." in Brown, Robert L. (editor) (1991) Studies of an Asian God, pp. 235-274. State University of New Ytrrk Pre'ss,Albany There are thirty texts contained in the Tibetan Buddhist canon which deal with Ganesha. In these texts, which are Indian texts preserved in Tibetan translation, Ganapati is depicted as a wealth deity which can also grant worldly pleasures like sex and food. He is also depicted as a protector from negative forces, demons, and sickness. In these tantric Buddhist sources, Ganesha is generally presented as an emanation of the Bodhisattva Avalokitesvara.
Ganesha also appears in China and Japan in forms that show distinct regional character. In North China, the earliest known stone statue of Ganesha carries an inscription dated to 531., p. 311. In Japan, where Ganesha is known as Kangiten, the Ganesha cult was first mentioned in 806., p. 313.
Today in Buddhist Thailand, Ganesha is also regarded as a remover of obstacles, and as the god of success. Thailand regards Ganesha mainly as the god of arts and academics. The belief was initiated by King Vajiravudh of the Chakri dynasty who was devoted to Ganesha personally. He even built a Ganesha shrine at his personal palace, Sanam Chandra Palace in Nakhon Pathom Province where he focused on his academic and literary works. His personal belief regarding Ganesha as the god of arts formally became prominent following the establishment of the Fine Arts Department. Today, Ganesha is depicted both in the seal of the Fine Arts Department, and Thailand's first prominent fine arts academy; the Silpakorn University.
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