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The Chalukya dynasty () was a dynasty that ruled large parts of south India and central India between the 6th and the 12th centuries. During this period, they ruled as three related yet individual dynasties. The earliest dynasty, known as the "Badami Chalukyas", ruled from Vatapi (modern Badami) from the middle of the 6th century. The Badami Chalukyas began to assert their independence at the decline of the Kadamba Dynasty kingdom of Banavasi and rapidly rose to prominence during the reign of Pulakeshin II. After the death of Pulakeshin II, the Eastern Chalukyas became an independent kingdom in the eastern Deccan Plateau. They ruled from Vengi until about the 11th century. In the western Deccan, the rise of the Rashtrakutas in the middle of the 8th century eclipsed the Chalukyas of Badami before being revived by their descendants, the Western Chalukyas, in the late 10th century. These Western Chalukyas ruled from Kalyani (modern Basavakalyan) until the end of the 12th century.
The rule of the Chalukyas marks an important milestone in the history of South India and a Golden Age in the history of Karnataka. The political atmosphere in South India shifted from smaller kingdoms to large empires with the ascendancy of Badami Chalukyas. A Southern India-based kingdom took control and consolidated the entire region between the Kaveri and the Narmada River rivers. The rise of this empire saw the birth of efficient administration, overseas trade and commerce and the development of new style of architecture called "Chalukyan architecture". Kannada literature, which had enjoyed royal support in the 9th century Rashtrakuta court found eager patronage from the Western Chalukyas in the Jain and Brahminical traditions. The 11th century saw the patronage of Telugu literature under the Eastern Chalukyas.
A theory that they were descendants of a 2nd-century chieftain called Kandachaliki Remmanaka, a feudatory of the Andhra Ikshvaku (from an Ikshvaku inscription of the 2nd century) was put forward. This according to Kamath has failed to explain the difference in lineage. The Kandachaliki feudatory call themselves Vashisthiputras of the Hiranyakagotra. The Chalukyas, however, address themselves as Harithiputras of Manavyasagotra in their inscriptions, which is the same lineage as their early overlords, the Kadamba dynasty of Banavasi. This makes them descendants of the Kadambas. The Chalukyas took control of the territory formerly ruled by the Kadambas.Pulakesi I of Badami who was a feudatory of the Kadamba king Krishna Varman II, overpowered his overlord in c. 540 and took control of the Kadamba kingdom (Kamath 2001, p. 35)
A later record of Eastern Chalukyas mentions the northern origin theory and claims one ruler of Ayodhya came south, defeated the Pallavas and married a Pallava princess. She had a child called Vijayaditya who is claimed to be the Pulakeshin I's father. However, according to the historians K. V. Ramesh, Chopra and Sastri, there are Badami Chalukya inscriptions that confirm Jayasimha was Pulakeshin I's grandfather and Ranaraga, his father.Jayasimha (Pulakesi I's grandfather) is known from the Kaira inscription of 472–473 CE. Both Jayasimha and Ranaraga (Pulakesi I's father) are known from Mahakuta inscription of 599 CE and Aihole record of 634 CE (Ramesh 1984, pp. 26–27, p. 30)From the Badami Cliff inscription of Pulakesi I and from the Hyderabad record of Pulakesi II which states their family ancestry (Kamath 2001, pp. 56–58)Sastri (1955), p. 154Chopra (2003), p. 73, part 1 Kamath and Moraes claim it was a popular practice in the 11th century to link South Indian royal family lineage to a Northern kingdom. The Badami Chalukya records themselves are silent with regards to the Ayodhya origin.Kamath (2001), p. 56Moraes (1931). pp. 10–11
While the northern origin theory has been dismissed by many historians, the epigraphist K. V. Ramesh has suggested that an earlier southern migration is a distinct possibility which needs examination.Ramesh (1984), p. 19 According to him, the complete absence of any inscriptional reference of their family connections to Ayodhya, and their subsequent Kannadiga identity may have been due to their earlier migration into present day Karnataka region where they achieved success as chieftains and kings. Hence, the place of origin of their ancestors may have been of no significance to the kings of the empire who may have considered themselves natives of the Kannada speaking region.Ramesh (1984), p. 20 The writing of 12th century Kashmiri people poet Bilhana suggests the Chalukya family belonged to the Shudra while other sources claim they were born in the arms of Brahma, and hence were Kshatriya caste.Bilhana, in his Sanskrit work Vikramanakadevacharitam claims the Early Chalukya family were born from the feet of Hindu God Brahma, implying they were Shudras by caste, while other sources claim they were born in the arms of Brahma, and hence were Kshatriyas (Ramesh 1984, p. 15) According to Xuanzang, the Chalukya king Pulakeshin II was war-like and loved "military arts", because he was a Kshatriya by birth.
The historians Jan Houben and Kamath, and the epigraphist D.C. Sircar note the Badami Chalukya Epigraphy are in Kannada and Sanskrit.Sircar D.C. (1965), p. 48, Indian Epigraphy, Motilal Banarsidass Publishers, Delhi, Kamath (2001), p. 57Houben (1996), p. 215 According to the historian N. L. Rao, their inscriptions call them Karnatas and their names use indigenous Kannada titles such as Priyagallam and Noduttagelvom. The names of some Chalukya princes end with the pure Kannada term arasa (meaning "king" or "chief").Professor N.L. Rao has pointed out that some of their family records in Sanskrit have also named the princes with "arasa", such as Kattiyarasa (Kirtivarman I), Bittarasa (Kubja Vishnuvardhana) and Mangalarasa (Mangalesha, Kamath 2001, pp. 57–60)Historians Shafaat Ahmad Khan and S. Krishnasvami Aiyangar clarify that Arasa is Kannada word, equivalent to Sanskrit word Raja – Journal of Indian History p. 102, Published by Department of Modern Indian History, University of Allahabad The Rashtrakuta inscriptions call the Chalukyas of Badami Karnatakabala ("Power of Karnataka"). It has been proposed by the historian S. C. Nandinath that the word "Chalukya" originated from Salki or Chalki which is a Kannada word for an agricultural implement.Dr. Hoernle suggests a non-Sanskrit origin of the dynastic name. Dr. S.C. Nandinath feels the Chalukyas were of agricultural background and of Kannada origin who later took up a martial career. He feels the word Chalki found in some of their records must have originated from salki, an agricultural implement (Kamath 2001, p. 57)The word Chalukya is derived from a Dravidian root (Kittel in Karmarkar 1947, p. 26) According to some historians, the Chalukyas originated from agriculturists. (2025). 9789391165055, Juggernaut. ISBN 9789391165055
Travelogues of contemporary foreign travellers have provided useful information about the Chalukyan empire. The Chinese traveller Xuanzang had visited the court of Pulakeshin II. At the time of this visit, as mentioned in the Aihole record, Pulakeshin II had divided his empire into three Maharashtrakas or great provinces comprising 99,000 villages each. This empire possibly covered present day Karnataka, Maharashtra and Konkan.Pulakesi II's Maharashtra extended from Nerbudda (Narmada River river) in the north to Tungabhadra in the south (Vaidya 1924, p. 171)Kamath (2001), p. 60 Xuanzang, impressed with the governance of the empire observed that the benefits of the king's efficient administration was felt far and wide. Later, Persian emperor Khosrau II exchanged ambassadors with Pulakeshin II.From the notes of Arab traveller Tabari (Kamath 2001, p. 60)Chopra (2003), p. 75, part 1The Buddhist Caves at Aurangabad: Transformations in Art and Religion, Pia Brancaccio, BRILL, 2010 p.82
Some scholars connect the Chalukyas with the Chaulukyas (Solankis) of Gujarat. According to a myth mentioned in latter manuscripts of Prithviraj Raso, Chaulukyas were born out of fire-pit (Agnikund) at Mount Abu. However it has been reported that the story of Agnivansha is not mentioned at all in the original version of the Prithviraj Raso preserved in the Fort Library at Bikaner.
According to the Nilagunda inscription of King Vikramaditya VI (11th century or later), the Chalukyas originally hailed from Ayodhya where fifty-nine kings ruled, and later, sixteen more of this family ruled from South India where they had migrated. This is repeated by his court poet Bilhana, who claims that the first member of the family, "Chalukya", was so named as he was born in the "hollow of the hands" of God Brahma.Kamath 2001, pp. 56Quote:"Another unhistorical trend met with in the epigraphical records of the 11th and subsequent centuries is the attempt, on the part of the court poets, no doubt, again, with the consent of their masters, to invent mythical genealogies which seek to carry back the antiquity of the royal families not merely to the periods of the epics and the Vedas but to the very moment of their creation in the heavens. As far as the Chalukyas of Vatapi are concerned, the blame of engineering such travesties attaches, once again, to the Western Chalukyas of Kalyani and their Eastern Chalukya contemporaries. The Eastern Chalukyas, for instance, have concocted the following long list of fifty-two names commencing with no less a personage than the divine preserver"(Ramesh 1984, p. 16) Some genealogical accounts point to an Ayodhya origin and claim that the Chalukyas belonged to the Solar dynasty.
According to a theory put forward by Lewis, the Chalukya were descendants of the "Seleucid Empire" tribe of Iraq and that their conflict with the Pallava of Kanchi was, but a continuation of the conflict between ancient Seleukia and "Parthian Empire", the proposed ancestors of Pallavas. However, this theory has been rejected by Kamath as it seeks to build lineages based simply on similar-sounding clan names.Dr. Lewis's theory has not found acceptance because the Pallavas were in constant conflict with the Kadambas, prior to the rise of Chalukyas (Kamath 2001, p. 57)
Pulakeshin II, whose pre-coronation name was Ereya,Kamath (2001), pp. 58–59 commanded control over the entire Deccan and is perhaps the most well-known emperor of the Badami dynasty.Ramesh (1984), p. 76Chopra 2003, p. 74, part 1 He is considered one of the notable kings in Indian history.Quote:"His fame spread far and wide even beyond India" (Chopra 2003, p. 75 part 1)Quote:"One of the great kings of India". He successfully defied the expansion of king Harshavardhana of Northern India into the deccan. The Aihole inscription by Ravikirti describes how King Harsha lost his Harsha or cheerful disposition after his defeat. The Chinese traveller Hiuen Tsiang also confirms Pulakesi II's victory over King Harsha in his travelogue. Pulakesi II took titles such as Prithvivallabha and Dakshinapatha Prithviswamy (Kamath 2001, pp. 58–60)Quote:"Thus began one of the most colourful careers in Indian History" (Ramesh 1984, p. 76) His queens were princess from the Alupas of South Canara and the Western Ganga Dynasty of Talakad, clans with whom the Chalukyas maintained close family and marital relationships.Vikramaditya I, who later revived the Chalukya fortunes was born to Pulakesi II and the daughter of Western Ganga monarch Durvinita (Chopra 2003, p. 74, part 1)His other queen, an Alupa princess called Kadamba was the daughter of Aluka Maharaja (G.S. Gai in Kamath 2001, p. 94) Pulakeshin II extended the Chalukya Empire up to the northern extents of the Pallava kingdom and halted the southward march of Harsha by defeating him on the banks of the river Narmada River. He then defeated the Vishnukundins in the south-eastern Deccan.Quote:"The Aihole record gives an impressive list of his military conquests and other achievements. According to the record, he conquered the Kadambas, the Western Gangas, the north Konkan by naval victory, Harsha of Thanesar, the Latas, the Malwas, the Gurjaras (thereby obtaining sovereignty over the Maharashtras), Berar, Maharashtra and Kuntala (with their nine and ninety thousand villages), the Kalingas and the Kosalas, Pishtapura (Pishtapuram in eastern Andhra) and Kanchipuram, whose king had opposed the rise of his power" (Chopra 2003, p. 74 part 1)Ramesh (1984), pp. 79–80, pp. 86–87According to Dr. R. C. Majumdar, some principalities may have submitted to Pulakesi II out of fear of Harsha of Kanauj (Kamath 2001, p. 59)Sastri (1955), pp. 135–136 Pallava Narasimhavarman however reversed this victory in 642 by attacking and occupying Badami temporarily. It is presumed Pulakeshin II, "the great hero", died fighting.Sastri (1955), p. 136
The Badami Chalukya dynasty went into a brief decline following the death of Pulakeshin II due to internal feuds when Badami was occupied by the Pallavas for a period of thirteen years.This is attested to by an inscription behind the Mallikarjuna temple in Badami (Sastri 1955, p. 136)Chopra (2003), pp. 75–76, part 1 It recovered during the reign of Vikramaditya I, who succeeded in pushing the Pallavas out of Badami and restoring order to the empire. Vikramaditya I took the title "Rajamalla" ( lit "Sovereign of the Mallas" or Pallavas).From the Gadval plates dated c. 674 of Vikramaditya I (Chopra 2003, p. 76, part 1) The thirty-seven year rule of Vijayaditya (696–733) was a prosperous one and is known for prolific temple building activity.Chopra (2003), p. 76, part 1Sastri (1955), p. 138
The empire was its peak again during the rule of the illustrious Vikramaditya II (733–744) who is known not only for his repeated invasions of the territory of Tondaimandalam and his subsequent victories over Pallava Nandivarman II, but also for his benevolence towards the people and the monuments of Kanchipuram, the Pallava capital.From the Kannada inscription at the Kailasanatha temple in Kanchipuram (Sastri 1955, p. 140)Kamath (2001), p. 63 He thus avenged the earlier humiliation of the Chalukyas by the Pallavas and engraved a Kannada inscription on the victory pillar at the Kailasanatha Temple.Thapar (2003), p. 331Ramesh (1984), pp. 159–160 During his reign Arab intruders of the Caliphal province of Sind invaded southern Gujarat which was under Chalukya rule, but the Arabs were defeated and driven out by Avanijanashraya Pulakeshin, the governor of the Chalukya branch of Navsari.Dikshit, Durga Prasad (1980), p. 166–167, Political History of the Chālukyas of Badami, Abhinav Publications, New Delhi, OCLC 831387906 Vikramaditya II later overran the other traditional kingdoms of Tamil country, the , the and the Chera Dynasty in addition to subduing a Kalabhra ruler.Ramesh (1984), p. 159 The last Chalukya king, Kirtivarman II, was overthrown by the Rashtrakuta king Dantidurga in 753.Ramesh (1984), pp. 173–174 At their peak, the Chalukyas ruled a vast empire stretching from the Kaveri in the south to the Narmada River in the north.
Tailapa II, a Rashtrakuta feudatory ruling from Tardavadi – 1000 (Bijapur district) overthrew Karka II, re-established the Chalukya rule in the western Deccan and recovered most of the Chalukya empire.Later legends and tradition hailed Tailapa as an incarnation of the God Krishna who fought 108 battles against the race of Ratta (Rashtrakuta) and captured 88 fortresses from them (Sastri 1955, p. 162)From his c. 957 and c.965 records (Kamath 2001, p. 101 The Western Chalukyas ruled for over 200 years and were in constant conflict with the Cholas, and with their cousins, the Eastern Chalukyas of Vengi. Vikramaditya VI is widely considered the most notable ruler of the dynasty.Vijnyaneshavara, the Sanskrit scholar in his court, eulogised him as "a king like none other" (Kamath 2001, p. 106)The writing Vikramankadevacharita by Bilhana is a eulogy of the achievements of the king in 18 cantos (Sastri, 1955 p. 315) Starting from the very beginning of his reign, which lasted fifty years, he abolished the original Saka era and established the Vikrama Era. Most subsequent Chalukya inscriptions are dated in this new era.Cousens 1926, p. 11Vikrama–Chalukya era of 1075 CE (Thapar 2003, p. 469) Vikramaditya VI was an ambitious and skilled military leader. Under his leadership the Western Chalukyas were able to end the Chola influence over Vengi (coastal Andhra) and become the dominant power in the Deccan.Chopra (2003), p. 139, part 1Sastri (1955), p. 175 The Western Chalukya period was an important age in the development of Kannada literature and Sanskrit literature.Kamath (2001), pp. 114–115Narasimhacharya (1988), pp. 18–20 They went into their final dissolution towards the end of the 12th century with the rise of the Hoysala Empire, the Pandyas, the Kakatiya dynasty and the Seuna Yadavas of Devagiri.Sastri (1955), p. 192
After the decline of the Badami Chalukya empire in the mid-8th century, territorial disputes flared up between the Rashtrakutas, the new rulers of the western deccan, and the Eastern Chalukyas. For much of the next two centuries, the Eastern Chalukyas had to accept subordination towards the Rashtrakutas.Chopra (2003), p. 133 Apart from a rare military success, such as the one by Vijayaditya II(c.808–847), it was only during the rule of Bhima I (c.892–921) that these Chalukyas were able to celebrate a measure of independence. After the death of Bhima I, the Andhra region once again saw succession disputes and interference in Vengi affairs by the Rashtrakutas.
The fortunes of the Eastern Chalukyas took a turn around 1000. Danarnava, their king, was killed in battle in 973 by the Telugu Choda King Bhima who then imposed his rule over the region for twenty-seven years. During this time, Danarnava's two sons took refuge in the Chola kingdom. Choda Bhima's invasion of Tondaimandalam, a Chola territory, and his subsequent death on the battlefield opened up a new era in Chola–Chalukya relations. Saktivarman I, the elder son of Danarnava was crowned as the ruler of Vengi in 1000, though under the control of king Rajaraja Chola I.Sastri (1955), pp. 164–165 This new relationship between the Cholas and the coastal Andhra kingdom was unacceptable to the Western Chalukyas, who had by then replaced the Rashtrakutas as the main power in the western Deccan. The Western Chalukyas sought to brook the growing Chola influence in the Vengi region but were unsuccessful.Sastri (1955), p. 165
Initially, the Eastern Chalukyas had encouraged Kannada language and literature, though, after a period of time, local factors took over and they gave importance to Telugu language.Narasimhacharya (1988), p. 68The Eastern Chalukya inscriptions show a gradual shift towards Telugu with the appearance of Telugu stanzas from the time of king Gunaga Vijayaditya (Vijayaditya III) in the middle of the 9th century, Telugu literature owes its growth to the Eastern Chalukyas.The first work of Telugu literature is a translation of Mahabharata by Nannaya during the rule of Eastern Chalukya king Rajaraja Narendra (1019–1061; Sastri 1955, p. 367)
Their temple building activity can be categorised into three phases. The early phase began in the last quarter of the 6th century and resulted in many cave temples, prominent among which are three elementary cave temples at Aihole (one Veda, one Jain and one Buddhist which is incomplete), followed by four developed cave temples at Badami (of which cave 3, a Vaishnava temple, is dated accurately to 578 CE). These cave temples at Badami are similar, in that, each has a plain exterior but an exceptionally well finished interior consisting of a pillared verandah, a columned hall ( mandapa) and a cella (shrine, cut deep into rock) which contains the deity of worship.Sastri (1955), p. 406 In Badami, three caves temples are Vedic and one in Jain. The Vedic temples contain large well sculpted images of Harihara, Durga, Varaha, Narasimha, Trivikrama, Vishnu seated on Shesha (the snake) and Nataraja (dancing Shiva).Quote:"The Chalukyas cut rock like titans but finished like jewellers"(Sheshadri in Kamath 2001, pp. 68–69)
The second phase of temple building was at Aihole (where some seventy structures exist and has been called "one of the cradles of Indian temple architecture"Percy Brown in Kamath (2001), p. 68) and Badami. Though the exact dating of these temples has been debated, there is consensus that the beginnings of these constructions are from c. 600.Sastri (1955), p. 407Hardy (1995), p. 67Foekema (2003), p. 11 These are the Lad Khan Temple (dated by some to c. 450 but more accurately to 620) with its interesting perforated stone windows and sculptures of river goddesses; the Meguti Jain Temple (634) which shows progress in structural design; the Durga Temple with its northern Indian style tower (8th century) and experiments to adapt a Buddhist Chaitya design to a brahminical one (its stylistic framework is overall a hybrid of north and south Indian styles.); the Huccimalli Gudi Temple with a new inclusion, a vestibule, connecting the sanctum to the hall.Sastri (1955), pp. 407–408 Other dravida style temples from this period are the Naganatha Temple at Nagaral; the Banantigudi Temple, the Mahakutesvara Temple and the Mallikarjuna Temple at Mahakuta; and the Lower Sivalaya Temple, the Malegitti Sivalaya Temple (upper) and the Jambulingesvara Temple at Badami. Located outside the Chalukyan architectural heartland, 140 km south-east of Badami, with a structure related to the Early Chalukya style is the unusual Parvati Temple at Sanduru which dates to the late 7th century. It is medium-sized, 48 ft long and 37 ft wide. It has a nagara (north Indian) style vimana (tower) and dravida (south Indian) style parts, has no mantapa (hall) and consists of an antarala (Antechamber) crowned with a barrel-vaulted tower ( sukhanasi). The "staggered" base plan of the temple became popular much later, in the 11th century.Carol Radcliffe Bolon, (1980) pp. 303–326, The Pārvatī Temple, Sandur and Early Images of Agastya, Artibus Asiae Vol. 42, No. 4Hardy (1995), p.342, p.278
The structural temples at Pattadakal, built in the 8th century and now a UNESCO World Heritage Site, marks the culmination and mature phase of Badami Chalukyan architecture. The Bhutanatha group of temples at Badami are also from this period. There are ten temples at Pattadakal, six in southern dravida style and four in the northern nagara style. Well known among these are the Sangamesvara Temple (725), the Virupaksha Temple (740–745) and the Mallikarjuna Temple (740–745) in the southern style. The Papanatha temple (680) and Galaganatha Temple (740) are early attempts in the nagara – dravida fusion style.Sastri (1955), p. 408 Inscriptional evidence suggests that the Virupaksha and the Mallikarjuna Temples were commissioned by the two queens of King Vikramaditya II after his military success over the Pallavas of Kanchipuram. Some well known names of Chalukyan architects are Revadi Ovajja, Narasobba and Anivarita Gunda.Kamath (2001), p. 69
The reign of Western Chalukyas was an important period in the development of Deccan architecture. Their architecture served as a conceptual link between the Badami Chalukya architecture of the 8th century and the Hoysala architecture popularised in the 13th century.Quote:"Their creations have the pride of place in Indian art tradition" (Kamath 2001, p. 115)Sastri (1955), p. 427 The centre of their cultural and temple-building activity lay in the Tungabhadra region of modern Karnataka state, encompassing the present-day Dharwad district; it included areas of present-day Haveri district and Gadag district districts.Cousens (1926, p 17Foekema (1996), p. 14 Here, large medieval workshops built numerous monuments.Hardy (1995), p. 156 These monuments, regional variants of pre-existing dravida temples, defined the Karnata dravida tradition.Hardy (1995), pp. 6–7
The most notable of the many buildings dating from this period are the Mahadeva Temple at Itagi in the Koppal district,Cousens (1926), pp. 100–102Hardy (1995), p. 333 the Kasivisvesvara Temple at Lakkundi in the Gadag district,Cousens (1926), pp. 79–82Hardy (1995), p. 336 the Mallikarjuna Temple at Kuruvatti, and the Kallesvara Temple at Bagali,Hardy (1995), p. 323 both in the Davangere district.The Mahadeva Temple at Itagi has been called the finest in Kannada country after the Hoysaleswara temple at Halebidu (Cousens in Kamath 2001, p 117) Other notable constructions are the Dodda Basappa Temple at Dambal (Gadag district),Cousens (1926), pp. 114–115Hardy (1995), p. 326 the Siddhesvara Temple at Haveri (Haveri district),Cousens (1926), pp. 85–87Hardy (1995), p. 330 and the Amrtesvara Temple at Annigeri (Dharwad district).Foekema (2003), p. 52Hardy (1995), p. 321 The Eastern Chalukyas built some fine temples at Alampur, in modern eastern Andhra Pradesh.Hardy (1995), p. 66The Badami Chalukyas influenced the art of the rulers of Vengi and those of Gujarat (Kamath 2001, pp. 68, 69)
From the period of the Badami Chalukyas, references are made to the existence of Kannada literature, though not much has survived.Sen (1999), p. 366 Inscriptions however refer to Kannada as the "natural language".Thapar (2003), p. 345 The Kappe Arabhatta record of c. 700 in tripadi (three line) metre is the earliest available work in Kannada poetics.Sahitya Akademi (1988), p. 1717 Karnateshwara Katha, which was quoted later by Jayakirti, is believed to be a eulogy of Pulakeshin II and to have belonged to this period.Chidananda Murthy in Kamath (2001), p. 67 Other probable Kannada writers, whose works are not extant now but titles of which are known from independent referencesSuch as Indranandi's Srutavatara, Devachandra's Rajavalikathe (Narasimhacharya, 1934, pp. 4–5); Bhattakalanka's Sabdanusasana of 1604 (Sastri 1955, p. 355) are Syamakundacharya (650), who is said to have authored the Prabhrita, and Srivaradhadeva (also called Tumubuluracharya, 650 or earlier), the possible author of the Chudamani ("Crest Jewel"), a lengthy commentary on logic.Sastri (1955), p. 355Mugali (1975), p. 13Narasimhacharya (1988), p. 4
The rule of the Western and Eastern Chalukyas, however, is a major event in the history of Kannada and Telugu literatures respectively. By the 9th–10th centuries, Kannada language had already seen some of its most notable writers. The "three gems" of Kannada literature, Adikavi Pampa, Sri Ponna and Ranna belonged to this period.Sastri 1955, p. 356Chopra (2003), p. 196, part 1 In the 11th century, Telugu literature was born under the patronage of the Eastern Chalukyas with Nannaya Bhatta as its first writer.Sastri (1955), p. 367
Hampa and Settar suggest that Puligere (modern Lakshmeshwara), the first capital of the Chalukyas, was a major Jain centre. Historical records and local tradition mention that there were more than 300 Basadis or likely more around Puligere region. The present Someshwara temple is believed, based on inscriptions and historical evidence, to have originally been a Jain temple built during the reign of Pulakeshin, along with the Shanka Basadi constructed by Pulakeshin II and his family.Hampa.N (2014), pp. 23–25. Settar. s (1992), pp. 73–74. An inscription fixed on the left wall of the Shanka Basadi at Basti-Bana at Lakshmeshwara, records a grant of 500 nivartanas of land to the north of Puligere-nagara for the worship of "Shankha-Jinendra (Bhagwan Neminatha)". It was made by Durgasakti, son of Kundasakti and grandson of Vijayasakti of the Sendra lineage. The same inscription mentions that Pulakeshin II was also known as " Ereyamma". The Shanka Basadi was one of the most famous Jain shrines during the Chalukya period.Hampa.N (2014), pp. 26–28.Settar. s (1992), pp. 74–77.
Hampa Nagarajaiah and Settar also noted that the Meguti Jain Basadi inscription, commissioned during the reign of Pulakeshin II, begins with the line “Jayati Bhagwan Jinendra” and mentions Pulakeshin’s military achievements. The composer of the inscription, Ravikirti, was a Jain monk and likely served as the spiritual teacher of Pulakeshin II.Hampa.N (2014), pp. 12–15. and Kumkumadevi, the younger sister of Vijayaditya (and queen of Alupa dynasty Chitravahana) made several grants and had a Jain basadi called Anesajjebasadi constructed at Puligere,From the Shiggaon plates of c. 707 and Gudigeri inscription dated 1076 (Ramesh 1984, pp. 142, 144) Hampa Nagarajaiah further states that the Chalukyas had martial connections with several Jain dynasties, including the Ganga dynasty, Alupa dynasty, and Kalachuris.Hampa.N (2014), pp. 30–31.
However, the Chalukyas also known for supporting Hinduism as well and built several temples dedicated to Shaiva and Vaishnava deities.Chopra (2003), p. 191, part 1 Famous temples were built in places such as Pattadakal, Aihole and MahakutaSastri (1955), p. 391 The Badami kings were also supported Vedic priests to do their rituals and builted Hindu temples in Aihole. Sculptures of deities testify to the popularity of Hindu Gods such as Vishnu, Shiva, Kartikeya, Ganapathi, Shakti, Surya and Matrikas ("seven mothers"). The Badami kings also performed the Ashwamedha.Kamath 2001, p. 66 The worship of Lajja Gauri, a fertility goddess is known. The kings of the dynasty were however secular and actively encouraged all prominent religions. they builted the caves Caves temples to all faiths.Chopra (2003), p. 78, part 1
The dynasty, therefore, extended patronage to all the major religions of India Jainism, Hinduism, and Buddhism. Ravikirti, the Jain monk and poet and spirtual advisor of Pulakeshin II. Queen Vinayavati consecrated a temple for the Trimurti ("Hindu trinity") at Badami. Sculptures of the Trimurti, Harihara (half Vishnu, half Shiva) and Ardhanarishwara (half Shiva, half woman) provide ample evidence of their tolerance. Buddhism was on a decline, having made its ingress into Southeast Asia. This is confirmed by the writings of Hiuen-Tsiang. Badami, Aihole, Kurtukoti and Puligere (modern Lakshmeshwar in the Gadag district) were primary places of learning.
A celebration called Chalukya utsava, a three-day festival of music and dance, organised by the Government of Karnataka, is held every year at Pattadakal, Badami and Aihole. The event is a celebration of the achievements of the Chalukyas in the realm of art, craft, music and dance. The program, which starts at Pattadakal and ends in Aihole, is inaugurated by the Chief Minister of Karnataka. Singers, dancers, poets and other artists from all over the country take part in this event. In the 2006 celebration, 400 art troupes took part in the festivities. Colorful cutouts of the Varaha the Chalukya emblem, Satyashraya Pulakeshin (Pulakeshin II), famous sculptural masterpieces such as Durga, Durga (Durga killing demon Mahishasura) were present everywhere. The program at Pattadakal is named Anivaritacharigund vedike after the famous architect of the Virupaksha temple, Gundan Anivaritachari. At Badami it is called Chalukya Vijayambika Vedike and at Aihole, Ravikirti Vedike after the famous poet and Jain monk (Ravikirti) in the court of Pulakeshin II. Immadi Pulikeshi, a Kannada movie of the 1960s starring Dr. Rajkumar celebrates the life and times of the great king.
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