Spirituality
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Belief
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- Etymology
- Definition
- Development of the meani..
- Traditional spirituality
- Contemporary spiritualit..
- Scientific research
- See also
- Notes
- References
- Sources
- Further reading
Spirituality is the quality of being attached to or concerned with Religion questions and values broadly conceived, although the term is loosely defined, and may mean different things in different contexts. Traditionally, spirituality referred to a religious process of re-formation which "aims to recover the original shape of man", oriented at "the image of God" as exemplified by the founders and sacred texts of the of the world. The term was used within early Christianity to refer to a life oriented toward the Holy Spirit and broadened during the Late Middle Ages to include mind aspects of life.
In modern times, the term both spread to other religious traditions and broadened to refer to a wider range of experiences, including a range of esoteric and religious traditions. Modern usages tend to refer to a subjective experience of a Sacredness, and the "deepest values and meanings by which people live", often in a context separate from organized religious institutions. This may involve belief in a supernatural realm beyond the ordinarily observable world, personal growth, a quest for an ultimate or sacred meaning, religious experience, or an encounter with one's own "inner dimension" or spirit.
Etymology
The term "spiritual", meaning "concerning the spirit", is derived from Old French spirituel (12c.), which is derived from Latin spiritualis, which comes by spiritus or "spirit".
The term "spirituality" is derived from Middle French spiritualité, from Late Latin spiritualitatem (nominative spiritualitas), which is also derived from Latin spiritualis.
Definition
According to Kees Waaijman, the traditional meaning of spirituality is a process of re-formation that "aims to recover the original shape of man, the image of God. To accomplish this, the re-formation is oriented at a mold, which represents the original shape: in Judaism the Torah, in Christianity there is Christ, for Buddhism, Buddha, and in Islam, Muhammad." Houtman and Aupers suggest that modern spirituality is a blend of humanistic psychology, mystical and esoteric traditions, and Eastern religions.
In modern times the emphasis is on subjective experience and the "deepest values and meanings by which people live", incorporating personal growth or transformation, usually in a context separate from organized religious institutions. Spirituality can be defined generally as an individual's search for ultimate or sacred meaning, and purpose in life. Additionally it can mean to seek out or search for personal growth, religious experience, belief in a supernatural realm or afterlife, or to make sense of one's own "inner dimension".
Development of the meaning of spirituality
Classical, medieval, and early modern periods
In ancient Rome, the concept of spirituality consisted mainly of the pax deorum (the peace of the gods), this was achieved through rituals and festivals that ensured divine favour and cosmic order.Gradel, I. (2002). Emperor Worship and Roman Religion. Oxford: Oxford University Press. While Roman spirituality was communal, it also involved personal engagement with the divine through the study of mythology and philosophy. Myths served as allegories for moral lessons and models for personal conduct, guiding individuals in their relationship with the gods.Barton, T. (1997). Power and Knowledge: Astrology, Physiognomics, and Medicine under the Roman Empire. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. The influence of Pythagoreanism philosophy, especially the Golden Verses, encouraged introspection, self-discipline, and ethical living. This blend of myth, philosophy, and ritual shaped a spirituality focused on both societal harmony and personal connection with the divine.Hingley, R. (2005). Roman Religion and the Religious World of the Empire. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Words translatable as "spirituality" first began to arise in the 5th century and only entered common use toward the end of the Middle Ages.Jones, L.G., "A thirst for god or consumer spirituality? Cultivating disciplined practices of being engaged by god," in L. Gregory Jones and James J. Buckley eds., Spirituality and Social Embodiment, Oxford: Blackwell, 1997, 3–28 4,. In a Biblical context the term means being animated by God. The New Testament offers the concept of being driven by the Holy Spirit, as opposed to living a personal life in which one rejects this influence.
In the 11th century, this meaning of "Spirituality" changed. Instead, the word began to denote the mental aspect of life, as opposed to the material and sensual aspects of life, "the ecclesiastical sphere of light against the dark world of matter". In the 13th century "spirituality" acquired a social and psychological meaning. Socially it denoted the territory of the clergy: "the ecclesiastical against the temporary possessions, the ecclesiastical against the secular authority, the clerical class against the secular class". Psychologically, it denoted the realm of the inner life: "the purity of motives, affections, intentions, inner dispositions, the psychology of the spiritual life, the analysis of the feelings".
In the 17th and 18th centuries, a distinction was made between higher and lower forms of spirituality: "A spiritual man is one who is Christian 'more abundantly and deeper than others'." The word was also associated with mysticism and quietism, and acquired a negative meaning.
Modern spirituality
Modern Roman religion
Transcendentalism and Unitarian Universalism
Theosophy, anthroposophy, and the perennial philosophy
The influence of Asian traditions on Western modern spirituality was also furthered by the perennial philosophy, whose main proponent Aldous Huxley was deeply influenced by Swami Vivekananda's Neo-Vedanta and universalism, and the spread of social welfare, education and mass travel after World War II.
Neo-Vedanta
Carl Jung
"Spiritual but not religious"
The distinction between the spiritual and the religious became more common in the popular mind during the late 20th century with the rise of secularism and the advent of the New Age movement. Authors such as Chris Griscom and Shirley MacLaine explored it in numerous ways in their books. Paul Heelas noted the development within New Age circles of what he called "seminar spirituality":Paul Heelas, The New Age Movement: The Celebration of the Self and the Sacralization of Modernity. Oxford: Blackwell, 1996, p. 60. Cited in Anthony Giddens: Sociology. Cambridge: Polity, 2001, p. 554. structured offerings complementing consumerism choice with spiritual options.
Among other factors, declining membership of organized religions and the growth of secularism in the Western culture have given rise to this broader view of spirituality.Michael Hogan (2010). The Culture of Our Thinking in Relation to Spirituality. Nova Science Publishers: New York. The term "spiritual" is now frequently used in contexts in which the term "religious" was formerly employed. Both theists and atheists have criticized this development.
Traditional spirituality
Abrahamic faiths
Judaism
Kabbalah (literally "receiving") is an esoteric method, discipline and school of thought of Judaism. Kabbalah is a set of esoteric teachings meant to explain the relationship between an unchanging, eternal and mysterious Ein Sof (no end) and the mortal and finite universe (his creation). Interpretations of Kabbalistic spirituality are found within Hasidic Judaism, a branch of Orthodox Judaism founded in 18th-century Eastern Europe by Rabbi Israel Baal Shem Tov. Hasidism often emphasizes the Divine immanence Divine presence and focuses on emotion, devekut, and the figure of the Tzadik. This movement included an elite ideal of nullification to paradoxical Divine Panentheism.
The Musar movement is a Jewish spiritual movement that has focused on developing character traits such as faith, humility, and love. The Musar movement, first founded in the 19th century by Israel Salanter and developed in the 21st century by Alan Morinis and Ira F. Stone, has encouraged spiritual practices of Jewish meditation, Jewish prayer, Jewish ethics, tzedakah, teshuvah, and the study of Musar literature.
Reform Judaism and Conservative Judaism have often emphasized the spirituality of Jewish ethics and tikkun olam, Jewish feminism, Jewish prayer, Torah study, ritual, and musar.
Christianity
- "Christian spirituality proposes an alternative understanding of the quality of life, and encourages a prophetic and contemplative lifestyle, one capable of deep enjoyment free of the obsession with consumption";
- "Christian spirituality proposes a growth marked by moderation and the capacity to be contentment with little."Pope Francis, Laudato si', published 24 May 2015, accessed 20 May 2024
- Work, with an understanding of its meaning, and relaxation are both important dimensions of Christian spirituality.
The terminology of the Catholic Church refers to an act of faith ( fides qua creditur) following the acceptance of Credo ( fides quae creditur). Although all Catholics are expected to pray together at Mass, there are many different forms of spirituality and private prayer which have developed over the centuries. Each of the major religious orders of the Catholic Church and other laity groupings have their own unique spirituality – its own way of approaching God in prayer and in living out the Gospel.
Christian mysticism refers to the development of mysticism within Christianity. It has often been connected to mystical theology, especially in the Catholic and Eastern Orthodox traditions. The attributes and means by which Christian mysticism is studied and practiced are varied and range from ecstatic visions of the soul's Bridal theology to simple prayerful contemplation of Holy Scripture (i.e., Lectio Divina).
Progressive Christianity is a contemporary movement which seeks to remove the supernatural claims of the faith and replace them with a post-critical understanding of biblical spirituality based on historical and scientific research. It focuses on the lived experience of spirituality over historical dogmatic claims, and accepts that the faith is both true and a human construction, and that spiritual experiences are psychologically and neurally real and useful.
Islam
Al-Khatib al-Baghdadi, an 11th-century Islamic scholar, referenced a statement by the Sahaba, Jabir ibn Abd-Allah:
Sufism
Sufism or () is defined by its adherents as the inner, mystical dimension of Islam.Alan Godlas, University of Georgia, Sufism's Many Paths, 2000, University of Georgia Nuh Ha Mim Keller, "How would you respond to the claim that Sufism is Bid'a?", 1995. Fatwa accessible at: Masud.co.uk Zubair Fattani, "The meaning of Tasawwuf", Islamic Academy. Islamicacademy.org A practitioner of this tradition is generally known as a (صُوفِيّ). Sufis believe they are practicing ihsan (perfection of worship) as revealed by Gabriel to Muhammad,
Sufis consider themselves as the original true proponents of this pure original form of Islam. They are strong adherents to the principal of tolerance, peace and against any form of violence. The Sufi have suffered severe persecution by more rigid and fundamentalist groups such as the Wahhabi and Salafi movement. In 1843 the Senussi Sufi were forced to flee Mecca and Medina and head to Sudan and Libya. See Google book search .
Classical Sufi scholars have defined Sufism as "a science whose objective is the reparation of the heart and turning it away from all else but God".Ahmed Zarruq, Zaineb Istrabadi, Hamza Yusuf Hanson – "The Principles of Sufism". Amal Press. 2008. Alternatively, in the words of the Darqawa Sufi teacher Ahmad ibn Ajiba, "a science through which one can know how to travel into the Divine presence, purify one's inner self from filth, and beautify it with a variety of praiseworthy traits".An English translation of Ahmad ibn Ajiba's biography has been published by Fons Vitae.
Indian religions
Jainism
Jainism traces its spiritual ideas and history through a succession of twenty-four leaders or , with the first in the current time cycle being Rishabhadeva, whom the tradition holds to have lived millions of years ago; the twenty-third tirthankara Parshvanatha, whom historians date to 9th century BCE; and the twenty-fourth tirthankara, Mahavira around 600 BCE. Jainism is considered to be an eternal dharma with the tirthankaras guiding every time cycle of the Jain cosmology.
Buddhism
Various Buddhist paths to liberation developed throughout the ages. Best-known is the Noble Eightfold Path, but others include the Bodhisattva Path and Lamrim.
Hinduism
- Julius J. Lipner, Hindus: Their Religious Beliefs and Practices, 2nd Edition, Routledge, , p. 8; Quote: "(...) one need not be religious in the minimal sense described to be accepted as a Hindu by Hindus, or describe oneself perfectly validly as Hindu. One may be polytheistic or monotheistic, monistic or pantheistic, even an agnostic, humanist or atheist, and still be considered a Hindu.";
- Lester Kurtz (Ed.), Encyclopedia of Violence, Peace and Conflict, , Academic Press, 2008;
- MK Gandhi, The Essence of Hinduism , Editor: VB Kher, Navajivan Publishing, see p. 3; According to Gandhi, "a man may not believe in God and still call himself a Hindu."
Four paths
Jñāna marga is a path often assisted by a guru (teacher) in one's spiritual practice. Bhakti marga is a path of faith and devotion to deity or deities; the spiritual practice often includes chanting, singing and music – such as in – in front of idols, or images of one or more deity, or a devotional symbol of the holy.Jean Varenne (1976), Yoga and the Hindu Tradition, University of Chicago Press, , pp. 97–130 Karma marga is the path of one's work, where diligent practical work or vartta (, profession) becomes in itself a spiritual practice, and work in daily life is perfected as a form of spiritual liberation and not for its material rewards.See discussion of Hinduism and karma yoga in two different professions in these journal articles:
Rāja marga is the path of cultivating necessary virtues, self-discipline, tapas (meditation), contemplation and self-reflection sometimes with isolation and renunciation of the world, to a pinnacle state called samadhi.Vivekananda, S. (1980), Raja Yoga, Ramakrishna Vivekanada Center, Richard King (1999), Indian philosophy: An introduction to Hindu and Buddhist thought, Edinburgh University Press, , pp. 69–71 This state of samādhi has been compared to peak experience.See:
There is a rigorous debate in Indian literature on relative merits of these theoretical spiritual practices. For example, Chandogyopanishad suggests that those who engage in ritualistic offerings to gods and priests will fail in their spiritual practice, while those who engage in tapas will succeed; Shvetashvatara Upanishad suggests that a successful spiritual practice requires a longing for truth, but warns of becoming 'false ascetic' who go through the mechanics of spiritual practice without meditating on the nature of Self and universal Truths.See:
The 6th Sikh Guru Guru Hargobind re-affirmed that the political/temporal (Miri) and spiritual (Piri) realms are mutually coexistent. According to the 9th Sikh Guru, Tegh Bahadhur, the ideal Sikh should have both Shakti (power that resides in the temporal), and Bhakti (spiritual meditative qualities). This was developed into the concept of the Saint Soldier by the 10th Sikh Guru, Gobind Singh.
According to Guru Nanak, the goal is to attain the "attendant balance of separation-fusion, self-other, action-inaction, attachment-detachment, in the course of daily life", the polar opposite to a self-centered existence. Nanak talks further about the Ik Onkar or akal (timelessness) that permeates all life). and which must be seen with 'the inward eye', or the 'heart', of a human being.
In Sikhism there is no dogma, , or .
Those who speak of spirituality outside of religion often define themselves as spiritual but not religious, and generally believe in the existence of different "spiritual paths", emphasizing the importance of finding one's own individual path to spirituality. According to one 2005 poll, about 24% of the United States population identifies itself as "spiritual but not religious".
Lockwood draws attention to the variety of spiritual experience in the contemporary Western culture:
Those who speak of spirituality within religion also recognise the need for spirituality to take on a contemporary form: thus, for example, Pope Francis referred to and reflected on "contemporary devotion" in his encyclical letter Dilexit nos issued in 2024.Pope Francis, Dilexit nos, paragraph 91, published on 24 October 2024, accessed on 11 January 2025
Not all modern notions of spirituality embrace transcendental ideas. Secular spirituality emphasizes humanistic ideas on moral character (qualities such as love, compassion, patience, tolerance, forgiveness, contentment, responsibility, harmony, and a concern for others). These are aspects of life and human experience which go beyond a purely materialist view of the world without necessarily accepting belief in a supernatural reality or any divine being. Nevertheless, many humanists (e.g. Bertrand Russell, Jean-Paul Sartre) who clearly value the non-material, communal, and virtuous aspects of life reject this usage of the term "spirituality" as being overly-broad (i.e. it effectively amounts to saying "everything and anything that is good and virtuous is necessarily spiritual"). In 1930 Russell, a self-described agnostic renowned as an atheist, wrote "... one's ego is no very large part of the world. The man who can centre his thoughts and hopes upon something transcending self can find a certain peace in the ordinary troubles of life which is impossible to the pure egoist."
Similarly, Aristotle – one of the first known Western thinkers to demonstrate that morality, virtue and goodness can be derived without appealing to supernatural forces – argued that "men create Gods in their own image" (not the other way around). Moreover, theistic and atheistic critics alike dismiss the need for the "secular spirituality" label on the basis that it appears to be nothing more than obscurantism in that:
Although personal well-being, both physical and psychological, is said to be an important aspect of modern spirituality, this does not imply that spirituality is essential to achieving happiness (e.g. see ). Free-thinkers who reject notions that the numinous or non-material is important to living well can be just as happy as more spiritually-oriented individuals ( see)
Contemporary proponents of spirituality may suggest that spirituality develops inner peace and forms a foundation for happiness. For example, meditation and similar practices are suggested to help the practitioner cultivate a personal introspection and character.
Such spiritually-informed treatment approaches have been challenged as pseudoscience.
Compare:
James' notions of "spiritual experience" had a further influence on the modernist streams in Asian traditions, making them even further recognisable for a western audience.
William James popularized the use of the term "religious experience" in his The Varieties of Religious Experience. He has also influenced the understanding of mysticism as a distinctive experience which allegedly grants knowledge.
Wayne Proudfoot traces the roots of the notion of "religious experience" further back to the German theologian Friedrich Schleiermacher (1768–1834), who argued that religion is based on a feeling of the Infinite. Schleiermacher used the idea of "religious experience" to defend religion against the growing scientific and secular critique. Many scholars of religion, of whom William James was the most influential, adopted the concept.
Major Asian influences on contemporary spirituality have included Swami Vivekananda (1863–1902) and D. T. Suzuki (1870–1966). Vivekananda popularised a modern syncretic Hinduism in which an emphasis on personal experience replaced the authority of scriptures. Suzuki had a major influence on the popularisation of Zen in the west and popularized the idea of enlightenment as insight into a timeless, transcendent reality. Other influences came through Paul Brunton's A Search in Secret India (1934), which introduced Ramana Maharshi (1879–1950) and Meher Baba (1894–1969) to a western audience.
Spiritual experiences can include being connected to a larger reality, yielding a more comprehensive self; joining with other individuals or the human community; with nature or the cosmos; or with the Divinity realm.Margaret A. Burkhardt and Mary Gail Nagai-Jacobson, Spirituality: living our connectedness, Delmar Cengage Learning, p. xiii
Spiritual practices may include meditation, mindfulness, prayer, the contemplation of , development,
Dalai Lama, Ethics for the New Millennium, NY: Riverhead Books, 1999.
and spiritual retreats in a convent. Love and/or compassion are often described as the mainstay of spiritual development.
Within spirituality is also found "a common emphasis on the value of thoughtfulness, tolerance for breadth and practices and beliefs, and appreciation for the insights of other religious communities, as well as other sources of authority within the social sciences".
In the practice of Hinduism, suggest modern era scholars such as Vivekananda, the choice between the paths is up to the individual and a person's proclivities.Klaus Klostermaier (2007), A Survey of Hinduism, 3rd Edition, SUNY Press, , pp. 119–260 Other scholarsMikel Burley (2000), Hatha-Yoga: Its context, theory and practice, Motilal Banarsidass Publications, , pp. 97–98; Quote: "When, for example, in the Bhagavad-Gita Lord Krsna speaks of jnana-, bhakti- and karma-yoga, he is not talking about three entirely separate ways of carrying out one's spiritual practice, but, rather, about three aspects of the ideal life". suggest that these Hindu spiritual practices are not mutually exclusive, but overlapping. These four paths of spirituality are also known in Hinduism outside India, such as in Balinese Hinduism, where it is called Chatur Marga (literally: four paths).Murdana, I. Ketut (2008), Balinese Arts and Culture: A flash understanding of Concept and Behavior, Mudra – Jurnal Seni Budaya, Indonesia; Volume 22, p. 5
Schools and spirituality
Sikhism
African spirituality
Contemporary spirituality
The new Western spiritual landscape, characterised by consumerism and choice abundance, is scattered with novel religious manifestations based in psychology and the Human Potential Movement, each offering participants a pathway to the Self.
Characteristics
Spiritual experience
Spiritual practices
Scientific research
Health and well-being
Intercessionary prayer
Spiritual care in health care professions
Spiritual experiences
Measurement
See also
Notes
Sources
Published sources
Web-sources
Further reading
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