Śāstra ( ) is a Sanskrit word that means "precept, rules, manual, compendium, book or treatise" in a general sense.[Monier Williams, Monier Williams' Sanskrit-English Dictionary, Oxford University Press, Article on zAstra] The word is generally used as a suffix in the literature context, for technical or specialized knowledge in a defined area of practice.[
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Śāstra has a similar meaning to English -logy, e.g. ecology, psychology, meaning scientific and basic knowledge on a particular subject. Examples in terms of modern neologisms include
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'physics',
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Rasashastra 'chemistry',
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'biology',
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Vastu shastra 'architectural science',
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Shilpa shastras 'science of mechanical arts and sculpture',
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Arthashastra 'science of politics and economics',
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'compendium of ethics or right policy'.
In Western literature, Śāstra is sometimes spelled as Sastra,[JDM Derrett (1973), Geschichte, Volume 1, Series Editor: Jan Gonda, Brill, , pages 34–36] reflecting a misunderstanding of the IAST symbol 'ś', which corresponds to the English 'sh'.
Etymology
The word Śāstra literally means "that which has been instructed/decreed", from the root √śās- which means "instruction/decree" combined with the ṣṭra-suffix.
Terminology
Śāstra commonly refers to a treatise or text on a specific field of knowledge. In early Vedas literature, the word referred to any precept, rule, teaching, ritual instruction or direction.[ In late and post Vedic literature of Hinduism, Śāstra referred to any treatise, book or instrument of teaching, any manual or compendium on any subject in any field of knowledge, including religious.][ It is often a suffix, added to the subject of the treatise, such as
]
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Yoga-śāstra
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Nyāya-śāstra
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Dharma-śāstra
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Koka- or Kāma-śāstra,
[Alex Comfort and Charles Fowkes (1993), The Illustrated Koka Śāstra: Medieval Indian Writings on Love Based on the Kāma Sūtra, Simon & Schuster, ]
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Mokṣa-śāstra
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Artha-śāstra
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Alaṅkara-śāstra (rhetoric)
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Kāvya-śāstra (poetics)
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Saṅgīta-śāstra (music)
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Nāṭya-śāstra (theatre & dance)
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Vyākaraṇa-śāstra (Sanskrit grammar), and others.
[James Lochtefeld (2002), "Śāstra" in The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism, Vol. 2: N-Z, Rosen Publishing, , page 626]
In Buddhism, a "śāstra" is often a commentary written at a later date to explain an earlier scripture or sutra. For example, Yutang Lin says that a text written by him and not given by Buddha, cannot be called a "Sūtra"; it is called a "Śāstra". In Buddhism, Buddhists are allowed to offer their theses as long as they are consistent with the Sūtras, and those are called "Śāstras."[ The Unification of Wisdom and Compassion Dr. Yutang Lin]
In Jainism, the term means the same as in Hinduism. An example of Jaina Śāstra is the 12th-century Yoga Śāstra of Hemchandracharya.[Amritlal Savchand Gopani (1989), The Yoga Śāstra of Hemchandracharya: A 12th Century Guide to Jain Yoga, Prakrit Bharti Academy, ]
Śāstra is sometimes the root of compounded Sanskrit words. A custodian of Śāstra, for example, is called Śāstradhāri (Sanskrit: शास्त्रधारी).[ disctionary meaning of Śāstradhāri]
References in the early texts
The term is found in several passages of the Rigveda (2nd millennium BCE), such as in hymn VIII.33.16.
In this Rigvedic verse, the term means rule or instruction.
The Maitri Upanishad (mid to late 1st millennium BCE), similarly, mentions the materialist and Brihaspati who disagreed that the Vedas are a treatise of knowledge, proposing relativism instead, in the following passage:[
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The term is found in other Upanishads as well as in Bhagavad Gita such as in verses 15.20, 16.23–16.24, and 17.1.[Sanskrit: इति गुह्यतमं शास्त्रमिदमुक्तं मयानघ । एतद्बुद्ध्वा बुद्धिमान्स्यात्कृतकृत्यश्च भारत ॥ १५-२०॥;]
English Translation: Winthrop Sargeant (2009), The Bhagavad Gita: Twenty-fifth–Anniversary Edition, State University of New York Press,
The (11.36; 14.30) uses the term Shastra to refer to the tradition. , and 's use the term. Similarly, the uses the term to refer to astronomical treatises. The term , refers to the of the s.
The term " " is found in Yaska's Nirukta (1.2, 14), where the reference is to Nirukta (etymology). An early use of the term with reference to the literature on dharma is found in the of , who uses the expression [Olivelle, P. (2006). Explorations in the Early History of the Dharmaśāstra in P. Olivelle (ed.) Between the Empires: Society in India 300 BCE to 400 CE, New York: Oxford Unuiversity Press, , p.169]
Chronology and authenticity
Shastras are predominantly post-Vedic literature, that is after about 500 BCE. However, it is unclear when various Shastras were composed and completed. The authenticity of the manuscripts is also unclear, as many versions of the same text exist, some with major differences. Patrick Olivelle, credited with a 2005 translation of Manu Dharma-sastra, published by the Oxford University Press, states the concerns in postmodern scholarship about the presumed authenticity and reliability of manuscripts as follows (abridged):[
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The literature of late 1st millennium BCE such as Arthashastra,[Patrick Olivelle (2013), King, Governance, and Law in Ancient India: Kauṭilya's Arthaśāstra, Oxford UK: Oxford University Press, , pages 30–32] and Shastras of various fields of knowledge from the early 1st millennium period is of great interest as it helped the emergence of diverse schools and the spread of Indian religions such as Hinduism and Buddhism in and outside South Asia.[Robert Lingat (1973), The Classical Law of India, University of California Press, , page 77;]
Steven Collins (1993), The discourse of what is primary, Journal of Indian philosophy, Volume 21, pages 301–393[Keay, John, India, A History, New York, Grove Press, 2000]
The shastras are both descriptive and prescriptive. Among the various Shastras, Manu's code of law has been among the most studied as the colonial British government attempted to establish different laws in British India based on Sharia for Muslims and Manu's code of law.[Pollock, Sheldon, From Discourse of Ritual to Discourse of Power in Sanskrit Culture, Journal of Ritual Studies 4:2, 1990, 315-45]
The shastras are not consistent or single-consensus documents. Dharma-sastras, for example, contain opposing views and contradictory theories. This is in part because they represent an ideal of human behaviour, while at the same time recognising the need to account for likely failings. The shastras do not present life as it was lived. Rather they reveal an idea of what life should be. The shastra texts constitute one of the great bodies of literature of the ancient world.[Doniger, Wendy, The Hindus, An Alternative History, Oxford University Press, 2010, pbk]
Sutra
Sutras are another genre of Indian texts that emerged in the 1st millennium BCE, particularly after the 600 BCE.[Arvind Sharma (2000), Classical Hindu Thought: An Introduction, Oxford University Press, , page 205-206] Sutra (literally "binding thread") denotes a type of literary composition distinct from Shastra. In Sanskrit, "sutra" typically referred to one or more aphorisms; hence sutras use short, aphoristic, evocative statements. In contrast, a Shastra is typically longer, with more detail and explanations. An example of a Sutra is Patanjali's (considered a classic Hindu treatise), while an example of Shastra is Hemachandra's Yogasastra (considered a classic Svetambara Jain treatise), both on yoga.[Olle Quarnström (2002), The Yogaśāstra of Hemacandra: A Twelfth Century Handbook of Śvetāmbara Jainism, Harvard University Press, ]
Shastras and Sutras are among the numerous other genres of literature that have survived from ancient India and medieval India. Other genres include Vedas, Upanishads, Vedangas, Itihasa, Puranas, , and .[Ludwik Sternbach (1973), Subhashita – A forgotten chapter in the histories of Sanskrit literature, in Indologica Taurinensia, Torino, Vol I, pages 169–254]
| + Major Shastras by Topics
! Topic !! Name of Shastra !! Authorship Date !! Author !! Language !! Description/Comments/References |
| Treatise on architecture and design. |
| A text on "science of aeronautics". |
Theological texts on Hindu Dharma, with over 100 different versions.[John Bowker (2012), The Message and the Book: Sacred Texts of the World's Religions, Yale University Press] |
| Texts related to love and sexuality. |
| Philosophical discourse between Sage Vasistha and Lord Rama. |
| Philosophical text, precursor to Yoga Vasistha. |
| Treatise on statecraft, economic policy, and military strategy. |
| Treatise on drama, dance, and music. |
| An astronomical text with planetary calculations. |
| Treatises related to Mahayana Buddhism. |
| Text on palmistry, face reading, and body analysis. |
| Guidelines on sculpture and temple architecture. |
See also
Notes
