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Newar (; , ) is a Sino-Tibetan language of central Nepal belonging to the Tibeto-Burman group. It is spoken natively by the Newar people, the indigenous inhabitants of Nepal Mandala, which consists of the Kathmandu Valley and surrounding regions in Nepal. The name Nepal Bhasa was historically used for the language and is the also the name used in official contexts by the Government of Nepal. This name is also preferred by native speakers and writers of the language. Another name frequently used is " Newari" but this name is considered inappropriate by Newar speakers due to the addition of the Indic suffix -i and it has become increasingly common to refer to the language as Newar in English.
Newar was the official language of Nepal during the medieval period, having been given this status by Jayasthiti Malla in the 14th century. The language during this period was consistently referred as "nepāla bhāṣā", a term which literally means "Nepalese Language". Despite the similar nomenclature, It is distinct from the Nepali language, an Indo-Aryan language which replaced Newar as the national language after the conquest of Nepal by the Shah dynasty, and additionally only adopted the name Nepali in the 1930s.
From the start of the Rana dynasty in the 1840s until democratisation, Newar suffered from official suppression. From 1952 to 1991, the percentage of Newar speakers in the Kathmandu Valley dropped from 75% to 44% and today Newar culture and language are under threat. Today, the language has been listed as "Definitely endangered" by UNESCO.
Newar literature is one of the oldest in Nepal, dating back to at least 600 years ago. Many of the literature written in Newar, like the Gopal Raj Vamshavali are very important in the study of the history of Nepal.
On 6 May 2024, Newar, along with Tamang language and Nepali language was declared as the official language of Bagmati Province. Similarly, Newar is given official status in the Indian state of Sikkim and several city governments of Nepal including the capital Kathmandu.
The name "Nepal Bhasa" has been used consistently in sources from the Malla dynasty to refer to the language. The earliest occurrences of the name Nepālabhāṣā (Devanagari: नेपालभाषा, "Nepalese language") or alternatively Nepālavāc (Devanagari: नेपालवाच, "Nepalese speech"), used to refer to the language, can be found in the manuscripts of a commentary to the Nāradasaṃhitā, dated 1380, and a commentary to the Amarkośa, dated 1386. Page 1. Some sources from the Malla Dynasty refer to the language as deśabhāṣā (Pracalit script: , ) or svadeśabhāṣā (Pracalit script: , ). Similarly, the language was referred to as Nepalese in sources of some 18th century Capuchin missionaries like in the journal who visited Nepal in the 1740s.
In contrast, the name Newar did not even appear in the written record before the 17th century and William Kirkpatrick was one of the first Western scholars to use the term Newar for the language in his 1811 book. Newar was also used in the travelogue of a few 18th century European missionaries to refer to the people or the land of Nepal. For instance, Ippolito Desideri who visited Nepal in 1721 used the term Neuâr to refer to the inhabitants of Nepal. Similarly, in one of the books written by the Capuchin mission in the 1740s, Nepal is referred as the kingdom of "Newar or Nepal".
The origin of the word Newar is generally believed to be related to the word Nepal, possibly derived by the replacement of the 'la' sound with a 'ra' sound, a common practice in historical documents from Nepal. Historically, "Newar" rarely used appeared in native sources as well. Only two sources in Nepal from before the Gorkhali rule use the term "Newar" to refer to the language or its script; the multilingual stone inscription of Pratap Malla uses " nevāra ākhara" ("newar alphabet") to refer to the Pracalit script and another stone inscription of Pratap Malla from 1652 uses the term nevārabhāṣā ("newar language") to refer to the language.
The term "Newari", derived from the Sanskritisation of "Newar" was first used by Brian Hodgson in 1847 and since then used by most western scholars. In one case, Shakya noted that Cecil Bendall in his translation of a Newar manuscript, used the term Newari to refer to the language although the manuscript he translated used the word Nepala Bhasa. However, the name Newari is considered inappropriate by Newar speakers due to the addition of the Indic suffix -i and it has become increasingly common to refer to the language as Newar in English.
In the 1920s, the language known as Khas Kura, Gorkhali or Parbatiya was renamed to Nepali language.Lienhard, Siegfried (1992). Songs of Nepal: An Anthology of Nevar Folksongs and Hymns. New Delhi: Motilal Banarsidas. . Page 3.आजभन्दा करिब नौ दशकअघि मात्रै देशको नाम ‘नेपाल’ का रूपमा स्विकारिएको हो भने, पहिले खस–पर्वते–गोर्खाली भनिने भाषालाई ‘नेपाली’ नामकरण गरिएको हो । Conversely, the term Gorkhali in the former national anthem entitled "Shreeman Gambhir" was changed to Nepali in 1951. Gorkha Bhasa Prakashini Samiti (Gorkha Language Publishing Committee), a government institution established in 1913 (B.S. 1970) for advancement of Gorkha Bhasa, renamed itself as Nepali Bhasa Prakashini Samiti (Nepali Language Publishing Committee) in 1933 (B.S. 1990), which is currently known as Sajha Prakashan.
On 7 September 1995, the cabinet of ministers decided to use "Nepala Bhasa" instead of "Newari". On 13 November 1998, the Minister of Information and Communication issued another directive to use the name Nepal Bhasa instead of Newari. However, the Central Bureau of Statistics have not been doing so.
A colloquial term is Newa Bhaay (Devanagari: नेवा: भाय्, IAST: Nevāḥ Bhāy) is also used.
DateFormat = yyyy Period = from:-2500 till:2100 TimeAxis = orientation:hor ScaleMajor = unit:year increment:400 start:-2400
Define $dx = 25 # shift text to right side of bar
PlotData=
bar:Age color:red width:25 mark:(line,white) align:left fontsize:S
from:start till:-2200 shift:(-20, 0) text:Antiquity
from:-2200 till:400 shift:($dx, 0) color:yellow text:Proto Newari
from:400 till:2000 shift:($dx, 0) color:green text:Historical Age
at:2000 shift:(10, -140) text:AD
at:-2200 shift:(0, -150) text:←Proto-Newari diverges from Proto-Chepangi
at:-200 shift:(-160, -165) text:Arrival of Charumati in the Valley→
at:-200 shift:(0, -180) text:←start of Indo-Aryanization through Magadhi Prakrit?
at: 200 shift:(-190, -195) text:Ascension of Lichhavi King Jayavarma-I→
at: 200 shift:(0, -210) text:←start of Sanskritization?
at: 1300 shift:(-181, -225) text:Arrival of last Karnat King Nanyadeva→
at: 1300 shift:(0, -240) text:←start of Maithali influence
at: 1400 shift:(0, -255) text:←start of Persian/Arabic influence
at: 1600 shift:(-135, -270) text:start of Khas Bhasa influence→
at: 600 shift:(-240, -285) text:Rise of Songtsen Gampo and influence of Tibetan→
at: 1920 shift:(0, -300) text:←Hindi and English influence
bar:Era5 color:blue width:18 mark:(line,white) align:left fontsize:S
from:-200 till:1980 shift:(0, 0) text:Indo-Aryanization period
from:1980 till:2000 shift:(0, 0) text:←Recent attempts to de-Sanskritize
bar:Era color:red width:25 mark:(line,white) align:left fontsize:S
from:400 till:1200 shift:(-20, 0) text:Ancient Era
from:1200 till:1850 shift:(-20, 0) color:yellow text:Medieval era
from:1850 till:1940 shift:(7, 0) color:black text:Dark era
bar:Era2 color:red width:25 mark:(line,white) align:left fontsize:S
from:1909 till:1940 shift:(5, 0) color:blue text:Renaiassance
bar:Era3 color:red width:25 mark:(line,white) align:left fontsize:S
from:1950 till:2000 shift:(5, 0) color:green text:Modern Era
bar:Era4 color:red width:25 mark:(line,white) align:left fontsize:S
from:1960 till:1990 shift:(2, 0) color:black text:Dark era
| chīna ḍhākō tr̥saṃghaṣa paribhōga, chu pulēṃga kītya bipāra vastra bivu mikhā tivu maduguna chu sāta duguna valhe | The community should keep an eye on what remains and replace for what is lost, with a remaining object or gift rightly sold out, give some clothes. |
The Newar language of the Medieval era (879 to 1769 CE) is referred as Classical Newar. It is further classified into Early Classical Newar, used from 879 to 1482, when the period of three kingdom started and Late Classical Newar, from 1482 to 1769, when the Malla dynasty ended.
In the 14th century, Newar was given the status of national language by Jayasthiti Malla. Since then, most of royal decrees, official proclamations and public notices set up by the monarchs appeared in Newar. Jayasthiti Malla himself commissioned many works in Newar like the Gopal Raj Vamshavali, a manuscript about the history of Nepal dating to 1389. From the 14th century onwards, an overwhelming number of stone inscriptions in the Kathmandu Valley, where they are a ubiquitous element at heritage sites, are in Newar.Bajracharya, Chunda (1985). Mallakalya Chhun Sanskriti ("Some Customs of the Malla Period"). Kathmandu: Kashinath Tamot for Nepal Bhasa Study and Research Centre.
The period from 1428 to 1769 is considered a Golden Age for Newar literature. Many monarchs of the Malla dynasty themselves started composing hymns and dramas in Newar. Noted royal writers include Mahendra Malla, Siddhi Narsingh Malla, and Ranajit Malla. Still, there are numerous works of literature from this period with anonymous authors. Some non royal authors include Keshav Udās, Brisabhānanda and Biladātāsingha.
Some notable women who wrote literature in Newar during this period include, Jagatakeshari from Banepa, Briddhi Lakshmi (queen consort of Bhaktapur), Riddhi Lakshmi (mother of Bhupalendra Malla), Jaya Lakshmi (queen consort of Yoga Narendra Malla). Among them, Riddhi Lakshmi is considered to be the first woman to publish literature in Nepal as her poems are the earliest dated literature in Nepal authored by a woman.
During the 18th century, Newar also began to catch the interest of Capuchin friars from Italy who had started to settle in Nepal. By the time the mission ended in 1769 with the expulsion of all Christians by the Gorkhalis, the Capuchins had written many literature in Newar, including translations of several catechisms and apologetics and several Newar-Italian dictionaries.
An example of the language used during this period is provided by the following lines from a poem written by Briddhi Lakshmi.
| kokila kokha o tī bhatu gilakhā va ati uti dhaka thva jugasa jula dukha hāṅā hāṅā parabata jina lhvaneṅa maphuta, madata vipatiyā udhāra | This is the age, where the crow and cuckoo are considered equal, where the owl and the parrot are considered the same
I can no longer bear the mountain of grief; there is no salvation for the grieved |
Following the advent of the Shahs, the Gorkhali language became the court language,Levy, Robert I. (1990) Mesocosm: Hinduism and the Organization of a Traditional Newar City in Nepal. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass Publishers. . Page 15. and Newar was replaced as the language of administration.Los Angeles County Museum of Art and Pal, Pratapaditya (1985) Art of Nepal: A Catalogue of the Los Angeles County Museum of Art Collection. University of California Press. . Page 19. However, Newar continued to remain in official use for a time as shown by the 1775 treaty with Tibet which was written in it. A few of the new rulers cultivated the language. Kings Prithvi Narayan Shah, Rana Bahadur and Rajendra Bikram Shah composed poetry and wrote plays in it.
Newar suffered heavily under the repressive policy of the Rana dynasty (1846–1951) when the regime attempted to wipe it out. Page 186. Page 10. In 1906, legal documents written in Newar were declared unenforceable, and any evidence in the language was declared null and void. Page 8. The rulers forbade literature in Newar, and writers were sent to jail.Lienhard, Siegfried (1992). Songs of Nepal: An Anthology of Nevar Folksongs and Hymns. New Delhi: Motilal Banarsidas. . Page 4. In 1944, Buddhist monks who wrote in the language were expelled from the country.LeVine, Sarah and Gellner, David N. (2005). Rebuilding Buddhism: The Theravada Movement in Twentieth-Century Nepal. Harvard University Press. , 9780674019089. Pages 47–49.Hridaya, Chittadhar (1982, third ed.) Jheegu Sahitya ("Our Literature"). Kathmandu: Nepal Bhasa Parisad. Page 8.
Moreover, hostility towards the language from neighbours grew following massive migration into the Kathmandu Valley leading to the indigenous Newars becoming a minority. During the period 1952 to 1991, the percentage of the valley population speaking Newar dropped from 74.95% to 43.93%. The Nepal Bhasa movement arose as an effort to save the language.
At various times, the government has forbidden literature in Newar, banned the official use and removed it from the media and the educational system. Opponents have even petitioned the Supreme Court to have its use barred.
Activism has taken the form of publication of books and periodicals to public meets and protest rallies. Writers and language workers have been jailed or expelled from the country, and they have continued the movement abroad. The struggle for linguistic rights has sometimes combined with the movement for religious and political freedom in Nepal.
In 1909, Bajracharya published the first printed book using movable type. Shastri wrote a grammar of the language entitled Nepal Bhasa Vyakaran, the first one in modern times. It was published from Kolkata in 1928. His other works include Nepal Bhasa Reader, Books 1 and 2 (1933) and an alphabet book Nepali Varnamala (1933).Bajracharya, Phanindra Ratna (2003). Who's Who in Nepal Bhasha. Kathmandu: Nepal Bhasa Academy. Page 27.
Mahaju's translation of the Ramayana and books on morals and ethics, Malla's endeavours to impart education in the native language and other literary activities marked the renaissance. Dharmacharya published the first magazine in Newar Buddha Dharma wa Nepal Bhasa ("Buddhism and Nepalese") from Kolkata in 1925. Also, the Renaissance marked the beginning of the movement to get official recognition for the name "Nepal Bhasa" in place of the Khas imposed term "Newari".
Some of the lines of Mahaju read as follows:
- सज्जन मनुष्या संगतनं मूर्ख नापं भिना वै
- sajjana manuṣyā saṃgatanaṃ mūrkha nāpaṃ bhinā vai
- पलेला लपते ल वंसा म्वति थें ल सना वै
- palēlā lapatē la vaṃsā mvati thēṃ la sanā vai
The verse states that even a moron can improve with the company of good people just like a drop of water appears like a pearl when it descends upon the leaves of a lotus plant.
Chittadhar Hridaya, Siddhicharan Shrestha and Phatte Bahadur Singh were among the prominent writers of the period who were jailed for their writings. While in prison, Hridaya produced his greatest work Sugata Saurabha, an epic poem on the life of Gautama Buddha. Shrestha wrote a collection of poems entitled Seeswan ("Wax Flower", published in 1948) among other works. Singh (1902–1983) was sentenced to life imprisonment for editing and publishing an anthology of poems by various poets entitled Nepali Bihar.Shrestha, Siddhicharan (1992). Siddhicharanya Nibandha ("Siddhicharan's Essays"). Kathmandu: Phalcha Pithana. Page 73.
The efforts of Newar authors coincided with the revival of Theravada Buddhism in Nepal, which the rulers disliked equally. In 1946, the monks who had been exiled by the Ranas in 1944 for teaching Buddhism and writing in Newar were allowed to return following international pressure. Restrictions on publication were relaxed, and books could be published after being censored. The monks wrote wide-ranging books on Buddhism and greatly enriched the corpus of religious literature.LeVine, Sarah and Gellner, David N. (2005). Rebuilding Buddhism: The Theravada Movement in Twentieth-Century Nepal. Harvard University Press. , . Pages 47–49. Pages 89–90.
Outside the Kathmandu Valley in the 1940s, poets like Ganesh Lal Shrestha of Hetauda composed songs and put on performances during festivals.Bajracharya, Phanindra Ratna (2003). Who's Who in Nepal Bhasha. Kathmandu: Nepal Bhasa Academy. . Page 225.
Literary societies like Nepal Bhasa Parisad were formed and Chwasa: Pasa returned from exile. In 1958, Kathmandu Municipality passed a resolution that it would accept applications and publish major decisions in Newar in addition to the Nepali language.
In 1963, Kathmandu Municipality's decision to recognize Newar was revoked. In 1965, the language was also banned from being broadcast over Radio Nepal. Page 14. Those who protested against the ban were put in prison, including Buddhist monk Sudarshan Mahasthavir.
The New Education System Plan brought out in 1971 eased out Nepal's other languages from the schools in a bid to diminish the country's multi-lingual traditions. Students were discouraged from choosing their native language as an elective subject because it was lumped with technical subjects. Page 75. Nepal's various languages began to stagnate as the population could not use them for official, educational, employment or legal purposes.
Birat Nepal Bhasa Sahitya Sammelan Guthi (Grand Nepal Bhasa Literary Conference Trust), formed in 1962 in Bhaktapur, and Nepal Bhasa Manka Khala, founded in 1979 in Kathmandu, are some of the prominent organizations that emerged during this period to struggle for language rights. The names of these organizations also annoyed the government which, on one occasion in 1979, changed the name of Brihat Nepal Bhasa Sahitya Sammelan Guthi in official media reports. Page 34.
Some lines by the famous poet Durga Lal Shrestha of this era are as follows:नेपालभाषाया न्हूगु पुलांगु म्ये मुना ब्वः१
- घाः जुयाः जक ख्वइगु खः झी
- स्याःगुलिं सः तइगु खः
- झी मसीनि ! झी मसीनि !
- धइगु चिं जक ब्वैगु खः
- We are crying because we are wounded
- We are shouting because of the pain
- All in all, we are demonstrating
- That we are not dead yet.
In 1997, Kathmandu Metropolitan City declared that its policy to officially recognize Nepal Bhasa would be revived. The rest of the city governments in the Kathmandu Valley announced that they too would recognize it. However, critics petitioned the Supreme Court to have the policy annulled, and in 1999, the Supreme Court quashed the decision of the local bodies as being unconstitutional.
The restoration of democracy has been marked by the privatization of the media. Various people and organizations are working for the development of Newar. Newar has several newspapers, a primary level curriculum, several schools, several FM stations (selected time for Newar programs), regular TV programs and news (on Image TV Channel), Nepal Bhasa Music Award (a part of Image Award) and several websites (including a Wikipedia in Nepal Bhasa).
The number of schools teaching Newar has increased, and Newar is also being offered in schools outside the Kathmandu Valley.
In Gorkha District, the Bhairav Temple at Pokharithok Bazaar contains an inscription dated Nepal Sambat 704 (1584 AD), which is 185 years before the conquest of the Kathmandu Valley by the Gorkha Kingdom. The Palanchowk Bhagawati Temple situated to the east of Kathmandu contains an inscription recording a land donation dated Nepal Sambat 861 (1741 AD).Hridaya, Chittadhar (ed.) (1971). Nepal Bhasa Sahityaya Jatah. Kathmandu: Nepal Bhasa Parisad. Page 113.
In Bhojpur in east Nepal, an inscription at the Bidyadhari Ajima Temple dated Nepal Sambat 1011 (1891 AD) records the donation of a door and tympanum. The Bindhyabasini Temple in Bandipur in west Nepal contains an inscription dated Nepal Sambat 950 (1830 AD) about the donation of a tympanum. Jhee (February–March 1975). Kathmandu: Nepal Bhasa Bikas Mandal. Page 9.
Outside Nepal, Newar has been used in Tibet. Official documents and inscriptions recording votive offerings made by Newar traders have been found in Lhasa.Hridaya, Chittadhar (ed.) (1971). Nepal Bhasa Sahityaya Jatah. Kathmandu: Nepal Bhasa Parisad. Pages 255–256. A copper plate dated Nepal Sambat 781 (1661 AD) recording the donation of a tympanum is installed at the shrine of Chhwaskamini Ajima (Tibetan: Palden Lhamo) in the Jokhang Temple.Hridaya, Chittadhar (ed.) (1971). Nepal Bhasa Sahityaya Jatah. Kathmandu: Nepal Bhasa Parisad. Page 47.
With an increase in emigration, various bodies and societies of Newar-speaking people have emerged in countries such as the US, the UK, Australia, and Japan.
The Language Commission of Nepal recommended Bagmati Province to provide Nepal Bhasa (Newar) the status of official language, alongside Tamang language. The commission also recommends Nepal Bhasa (Newar) for official status in specific areas and purposes in Koshi Province and Gandaki Province. At local levels, Nepal Bhasa (Newar) has official status in Kathmandu Metropolitan City, Lalitpur Metropolitan City and Kirtipur Municipality Chandragiri Municipality, Shankharapur Municipality, Tarkeshwor Municipality of Kathmandu district; Banepa Municipality, Dhulikhel Municipality of Kavre district; Godavari Municipality of Lalitpur district; and Bhaktapur Municipality, Madhyapur Thimi Municipality of Bhaktapur district have recognized Nepal Bhasa in some ways. Similarly, Bhimeshor Municipality has recognized and made policy-level decisions for Dolakha Nepal Bhasa.
T. R. Kansakar attributes the difficulty about the placement of Newar to the inability of scholars to connect it with the migration patterns of the Tibeto-Burman speakers. Since Newar separated from rest of the family very early in history, it is difficult or at least arbitrary to reconstruct the basic stratum that contributed to present day Newar speech. He underscored the point that the language evolved from mixed racial/linguistic influences that do not lend easily to a neat classification.
A classification (based on Glover's) indicating a percentage of shared vocabulary within the labeled branch and an approximate time of split:
ɫ "%" indicates lexical similarity/common vocabulary between Newar and the other languages in the branch. The date indicates an approximate time when the language diverged.
ɞ Van Driem labelled this branch as "Parakiranti" and included it together with Kiranti branch to form Maha Kiranti group. However, he would later drop this hypothesis.
ʌ All languages within this branch have extensive Indo-Aryan vocabulary. It is hypothesised that either ancient IndoAryan admixture happened before Newar-Thangmi-Baram split or that Thangmi-Baram borrowed through Newari.
Kansakar (2011) also gives the following classification of Newar dialects based on verb conjugation morphology.
Kapali (1141 Nepal Sambat) gives the following classification of Nepal Bhasa dialects based on mutual intelligibility.9789937093965, Self published. ISBN 9789937093965
Other ways Nepal Bhasa is classified are as follows:-
play a register-like role in dialectical diversity though they are minor. It has been recorded from the Malla period. There are some vocabulary differences used among Newar Hindus and Buddhists but the dialects of Patan and Kathmandu are similar. Hinduism and Buddhism were present at that age and few words in Hinduism and Buddhism of Newar differs. With the recent growth of Christianity, Islam, other religions, and atheism in Nepal, the diversity in the speech registers regarding religious terminology has become more extended, such as omitting the word dyaḥ (द्यः, 'god') after the name of a deity by many people whereas it is retained in Hinduism and Buddhism.
Nepal Lipi, also known as Nepal Akha,Lienhard, Siegfried (1992). Songs of Nepal: An Anthology of Nevar Folksongs and Hymns. New Delhi: Motilal Banarsidas. . Page 2. emerged in the 10th century. Over the centuries, a number of variants of Nepali Lipi have appeared.
Nepal Bhasa has been written in a variety of abugida scripts:
Devanagari is the most widely used script at present, as it is common in Nepal and India. Pracalit script, Bhujimol script and Ranjana script were the most widely used script to write Classical Nepalese in ancient times. It is experiencing a revival due to the recent rise of cultural awareness.
| ŋ ङ |
| ɲ ञ |
| ɳ ण |
| n न |
| m म |
| d͡ʑɲ ज्ञ |
Note that many of the consonants mentioned above (e.g. , , , etc.) occur only in loan words and mantras.
| 9 |
Kathmandu Newar does not use ñ for the palatal nasal but instead writes this sound with the ligature as for example in the word nyā 'five'. Orthographic vowel length (i vs ī and u vs ū) represents a difference of vowel length while the vowels with no orthographic length (a and ā) is indicated with the visarga (e.g. khāḥ ( IPA: ) 'is').
| ey |
Even though ऋ, ॠ, ऌ, ॡ are present in Newar, they are rarely used. Instead, some experts suggest including अय् (ay) and आय् (aay) in the list of vowels. Nepal Bhasa Wyaakarana (page 2) by Tuyubahadur Maharjan, published by Nepal Bhasa Academy
ङ्ह, ञ्ह, ण्ह, न्ह, म्ह, ह्य, ह्र, ल्ह and व्ह are sometimes included in the list of consonants as they have a specific identity in Nepal.
The use of ङ and ञ was very common in the old form of language. However, in the new form, especially in writing, the use of these characters has diminished. The use of ण, त, थ, द, ध, न, श, ष, क्ष, त्र, ज्ञ is limited by the new grammar books to the loan words only.
| + In Devanāgarī | |
| ४ | ९ |
| 4 | 9 |
| +Noun Case Endings in Contemporary Newar | Inanimate | Animate/non-honorific | Animate/honorific | |||
| Case | Singular | Singular | Plural | Singular | Plural | |
| Instrumental/Ergative case | -ṃ, -ḥṃ | -ṃ, -ḥṃ | (-sa-) -ṃ,
-ḥṃ, | -ṃ, -ḥṃ | -pisaṃ,
-pisaḥṃ | |
| Absolutive case | -ø | -ø | -ta | -ø | -pīṃ | |
| Sociative case | X | -yāke, -ike | -tayke | -yāke, -ike | -pīṃke | |
| Dative case | -yāta | -yāta, -ta | -tayta, -ita | -yāta | -pīṃta | |
| Genitive case | -yā | -yā | -tay | -yā | -pini | |
| Locative case | -e, -ay, -ī | X | X | X | X | |
| Abu | Persian language | Father |
| Ākha (आख) | Sanskrit (Akshara) | Letter |
| La:h (ल:) | Sanskrit (Jala:h) | Water |
| Kaa:sa | Sanskrit | Bronze |
| Ka:h | Pali (Kana) | Blind (Original meaning in Pali was "one-eyed") |
| Ka:n (कं) | Sanskrit (Kantaka:h) | Thorn |
| Kaji | Arabic | leader |
| Kimi (कीमी) | Sanskrit (Krmi) | Hookworm |
| Khaapaa (खापा) | Pali | Door (Original meaning in Pali was "door panel") |
| Khicha: (खिचा) | Sanskrit (Kukkura:h) | Dog |
| Ga:n (गं) | Sanskrit (Ghanta) | Bell |
| Dya:h | Sanskrit (Dev) | Deity |
| Naa:n | Sanskrit (Nām) | Name |
| Nhya:h | Sanskrit (Na:sika) | Nose |
| Bhay (भाय्) | Sanskrit (Bhasha) | Language |
| Dey (देय) | Sanskrit (Desh) | country |
| Bhukha | Sanskrit (Bhukampa) | Earthquake |
| Manu | Sanskrit (Manusya) | Person |
| Manda:h (मन्द) | Sanskrit (Mandala) | Circle |
| Mhu:tu | Sanskrit (Mukh) | Mouth |
| Gha:h | Sanskrit (Ghata:h) | Water pot |
| Dekhā | Sanskrit (Dikshā) | Initiation |
| Pukhuri | Sanskrit (Pukhkarini) | Pool |
| Niga:h | Sanskrit (Nagar) | City |
| Gām | Sanskrit (Grām) | Village |
| Lhā | Sanskrit (Hasta) | Hand |
|
|
