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The neurodiversity paradigm is a framework for understanding human brain function that considers the diversity within sensory processing, Motor skill, Social anxiety, cognition, and Attention as neurobiological differences. This diversity falls on a spectrum of neurocognitive differences. The neurodiversity movement views autism and other neurodivergences as a natural part of human neurological diversity—not disease or disorders, just "differences".
Neurodivergences include autism, attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), bipolar disorder, Prosopagnosia, developmental speech disorders, dyslexia, dysgraphia, dyspraxia, dyscalculia, dysnomia, intellectual disability, obsessive–compulsive disorder, schizophrenia, sensory processing disorder, synesthesia, and Tourette syndrome.
The neurodiversity movement started in the late 1980s and early 1990s with the start of Autism Network International. Much of the correspondence that led to the formation of the movement happened over autism conferences, namely the autistic-led Autreat, penpal lists, and Usenet. The framework grew out of the disability rights movement and builds on the social model of disability, arguing that disability partly arises from societal barriers and person-environment mismatch (e.g. the double empathy problem theory by Damian Milton), rather than attributing disability purely to inherent deficits. It instead situates human cognitive variation in the context of biodiversity and the politics of . (2016). 9780648154709, Kindle Ebook. ISBN 9780648154709 Some neurodiversity advocates and researchers, including Judy Singer and Patrick Dwyer, argue that the neurodiversity paradigm is the middle ground between a strong medical model and a strong social model. (2026). 9781403918383, Palgrave Macmillan. ISBN 9781403918383 (2019). 9781350024069, Bloomsbury. ISBN 9781350024069
Neurodivergent individuals face unique challenges in education, in their social lives, and in the workplace. The efficacy of accessibility and support programs in career development and higher education differs from individual to individual. Social media has introduced a platform where neurodiversity awareness and support has emerged, further promoting the neurodiversity movement.
The neurodiversity paradigm has been controversial among disability advocates, especially proponents of the medical model of autism, with opponents arguing it risks downplaying the challenges associated with some disabilities (e.g., in those requiring little support becoming representative of the challenges caused by the disability, thereby making it more difficult to seek desired treatment), and that it calls for the acceptance of things some wish to be treated for. In recent years, to address these concerns, some neurodiversity advocates and researchers have attempted to reconcile what they consider different seemingly contradictory but arguably partially compatible perspectives. Some researchers, such as Patrick Dwyer, Ari Ne'eman and Sven Bölte, have advocated for mixed, integrative or combined approaches that involve both neurodiversity approaches and Biomedical model approaches, for example teaching functional communication (whether verbal or nonverbal) and treating self-injurious behaviors or co-occurring conditions like epilepsy and depression with biomedical approaches.
Blume was an early advocate who predicted the role the Internet would play in fostering the international neurodiversity movement. In a New York Times piece on June 30, 1997, Blume described the foundation of neurodiversity using the term neurological pluralism. Some authors also credit the earlier work of autistic advocate Jim Sinclair in laying the foundation for the movement. Sinclair's 1993 speech "Don't Mourn For Us" emphasized autism as a way of being, claiming "it is not possible to separate the person from the autism."Sinclair, Jim. Don't Mourn For Us. Autism Network International. Retrieved May 7, 2013.
The neurodiversity movement grew largely from online interaction. The internet's design lent well to the needs of many autistic people. People socialized over LISTSERV and . Some of the websites used for organizing in the neurodiversity movement's early days include sites like Autistics.Org (2026). 9789811384370, Springer. ISBN 9789811384370 and Autistic People Against Neuroleptic Abuse. Core principles were developed from there. Principles such as advocating for the rights and autonomy of all people with brain disabilities with a focus on autism. The main conflicts from the beginning were about who the real experts on autism are, what causes autism, what interventions are appropriate, and who gets to call themselves autistic. During the 2000s, people started blogs such as Mel Baggs' Ballastexistenz and Kevin Leitch's Left Brain Right Brain. Eventually, Autistic Self Advocacy Network (ASAN) was started by Ari Ne'eman and Scott Robertson to further align the neurodiversity movement with the greater disability rights movement. ASAN led the Ransom Notes Campaign to successfully remove stigmatizing disability ads posted by the NYU Child Study Center. This was a massive turning point for the neurodiversity movement.
From there, the neurodiversity movement continued to grow with the formation of more organizations in the early 2010s such as Autistic Women & Nonbinary Network and The Thinking Person's Guide to Autism. More autistic people were appointed to federal advisory boards like Interagency Autism Coordinating Committee and National Council on Disability. There were various campaigns like the ongoing #StopTheShock related to the use of aversive treatment at Judge Rotenberg Center and various protests against Autism Speaks. Various flashblogs popped up during the 2010s to support campaigns. Annual traditions were formed such as Disability Day of Mourning and Autistics Speaking Day.
Damian Milton notes that, in 2014, Nick Walker attempted to define neurodiversity, the neurodiversity movement, and the neurodiversity paradigm. Walker tied neurodiversity to the idea that "all brains are to a degree unique". She also defined the movement as a rights movement, and the paradigm as a broader discussion of diversity, cultural constructions and social dynamics. (2026). 9781912755394, Pavilion. ISBN 9781912755394
An important question is which neurodivergences traditionally viewed as disorders should be depathologized and exempt from attempts to remove them. Autistic advocate Nick Walker suggested preserving "forms of innate or largely innate neurodivergence, like autism" while conditions like epilepsy or traumatic brain injury could be removed from the person without fundamentally changing the person because these are not pervasively linked to the individual's personality or perception of the world.
| + Descriptive statements of autism | ! Disordered !! Intrinsic disability !! Intrinsic impairment ! Social determinism !! Superpower | |||
| autism is a disorder | disability is intrinsic to an individual | impairment is intrinsic to an individual | disability is an impairment unaccommodated by society | autism is largely positive, with little negative implications |
Moreover, researchers have found that psychoeducation based on the medical model is associated with higher stigma. Another study found that endorsements of normalization and curative goals (goals of some medical models) are associated with heightened stigma. Similarly, some researchers and advocates also argue that a medicalizing approach can contribute to Social stigma and ableism, and that the persistent focus on biological research in autism based on deficit-based medical model is at odds with the priorities of those in the autism community.
The neurodiversity paradigm is controversial in autism advocacy. A prevalent criticism is that autistic people with higher support needs would continue to have challenges even if society was fully accommodating and accepting of them. Some critics of the neurodiversity paradigm, such as family members that are responsible for the care of such an autistic individual, think it might lead to overlooking or downplaying these challenges. In response, it has been stated that neurodiversity does not deny disability and support needs and that not having certain abilities or needing support is not intrinsically a bad thing, because notions of normal functioning are culturally and economically relative and historically contingent and there are cultures in which questions like "Will my child ever be able to live independently?" or "Who will care for my child after I die?" do not arise because support is provided by other members of the community as a matter of course.
| + Prescriptive statements on autism | !Participatory interventions !Integrationary interventions !Environmental modifications !Participatory research | ||
| interventions should prioritize outcomes deemed important by the autistic person | interventions should give autistic people the skills to appear closer to a species-norm | an autistic person's environment should be modified to better suit them | every stage of autism studies should involve autistic input |
Some scholars have noted points of contact between the neurodiversity movement and evolutionary psychiatry and evolutionary psychology. A 2024 perspective in Autism Research argued that evolutionary psychiatry can, in some contexts, support neurodiversity's goals by framing certain neurocognitive traits as part of human variation while remaining agnostic about clinical management or rights‑based advocacy. Related commentaries in psychiatric journals have encouraged careful evaluation of evolutionary accounts of autism alongside neurodiversity perspectives.
Autistic self-advocate and researcher Ari Ne'eman has suggested a trait-based approach, where elements of the medical (or pathology) model can be applied in treating certain traits, behaviors, or conditions that are intrinsically harmful (e.g. self-injury behaviors, epilepsy, or other co-occurring health conditions), while neurodiversity approaches can be applied to non-harmful or sometimes adaptive autistic traits (e.g. some stimming behaviors that do not result in self-injury, intense interests) of the same individual. Relatedly, some neurodiversity researchers, as well as autistic people, advocates and researchers, have advocated for application and sometimes integration or combination of both neurodiversity approaches and biomedical research plus practice.
In recent years, researchers, providers of various support services, and neurodivergent people have advocated for more neurodiversity-affirming support services/therapies, with both new therapy strategies being developed and advancements or reforms of existing therapy strategies (e.g. social skills programs, applied behavior analysis (ABA) interventions, occupational therapy) informed by experiences, strengths, interests, preferences, and feedback of autistic people as well as neurodiversity approaches and findings, with some evidence for beneficial effects. In addition, some researchers and advocates have called for more neurodiversity-affirming and lived-experience informed psychoeducation and stigma reduction methods.
Under the neurodiversity framework, these differences are often referred to as neurodivergences, in an effort to challenge the medical model of disability (sometimes referred to in the neurodiversity community as the "pathology paradigm"). This term provided activists a way to advocate for increased rights and accessibility for people with atypical neurocognitive functioning, both autistic and non-autistic.
Neurotypical (an abbreviation of neurologically typical, sometimes NT) is a neologism widely used in the neurodiversity movement as a label for anyone who has a neurotype that fits into the norm of thinking patterns. Thus, the term "neurotypical" includes anyone who is not autistic, and does not have ADHD, dyslexia, anxiety, or any other difference that would be considered neurodivergent. (2026). 9781945955266, Autonomous Press. ISBN 9781945955266 The term has been adopted by both the neurodiversity movement and some members of the scientific community.
Neuroscience writer Mo Costandi views terms like neurotypical as not being of use in neuroscience, while others, including Uta Frith and Francesca Happé, use the term freely. Ginny Russell mentions that there is no clear bimodal distribution separating autistic and non-autistic people because many non-autistic people have some autistic traits. (2026). 9789811384363 ISBN 9789811384363 Another criticism, that neurotypicality is a dubious construct because nobody can be considered truly neurotypical, has been said by Nick Walker to reflect a misunderstanding of the term because it is meant to describe those who can adapt to society's norms without much effort, not to imply that all neurotypical people's brains are the same.
Early definitions described neurotypicals as individuals who are not autistic. Early uses of NT were often satirical, as in the Institute for the Study of the Neurologically Typical, but it has been adopted by the neurodiversity movement too, and is now used in a serious manner.
In contrast to some of the shortcomings of terms like neurotypical (such as its underlying assumption that neurodivergent experiences are an anomaly, i.e., not typical), a growing group of advocates in the neurodivergent movement prefer other terms such as neuroconforming. The term allistic is also used, meaning .
An increasing number of studies in the 2010s and 2020s have found support for double empathy theory and related concepts such as bidirectional social interaction. (2026). 9781003189978 ISBN 9781003189978 One study comparing the conversations and socialization of autistic groups, non-autistic groups, and mixed groups found that autistic people were more able to build rapport with other autistic people than with non-autistic people, and at a level similar to the purely non-autistic group. A systematic review published in 2024 found that most autistic people have good interpersonal relations and social-communication experiences with most autistic people, and interactions between autistic people are associated with better quality of life across multiple domains, including mental health and emotional well-being.
The double empathy problem theory implies there is no simple fix that can help each group better empathize with each other, but it is worthwhile to bridge the double empathy gap through more equal contact and enhancing public understanding and empathy about autistic people based on neurodiversity-affirming approaches. The advantage of the theory is reducing pathologization of autistic people by identifying that most people struggle to empathize with people with different neurotypes. It can also help neurotypical individuals to better understand how neurodivergent people think and empathize and to recognize their own limitations in empathizing with autistic people. Vikram Jaswal and Akhtar (2019) highlight the difference between being socially uninterested and appearing socially uninterested, and challenge preconceived notions of a lack of social motivation. For example, testimonies from autistic individuals report that avoiding eye contact serves an important function of helping them to concentrate during conversation, and should not be interpreted as expressing social disinterest.
In this framing, conditions such as autism and ADHD are often associated with positive traits (or "superpowers") including creativity, attention to detail, hyperfocus, or unconventional problem-solving. This perspective has been linked to reductions in stigma, increased self-acceptance, and the promotion of workplace initiatives that seek to recognize neurodivergent strengths.
Commentators have also identified limitations in the concept. Critics note that it may overemphasize exceptional abilities while downplaying the barriers faced by individuals with high support needs, intellectual disabilities, or limited speech. (2026). 9781138144743, Routledge. ISBN 9781138144743
This tendency has been described as particularly evident in corporate and media discourses, where neurodivergence is portrayed as a "superpower" aligned with productivity and innovation, often positioning autistic people as desirable employees in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics fields. Critics argue that such portrayals highlight individuals who can succeed in neurotypical environments with minimal accommodations, while overlooking those who require greater support.
Scholars suggest that by centering traits valued by institutions, such as technical skills or problem-solving ability, neurodiversity-lite may promote forms of inclusion that do not address accessibility or systemic barriers. Some commentators argue that this usage shifts neurodiversity from a rights-based and justice-oriented paradigm toward a branding strategy.
Proponents of neurodiversity strive to reconceptualize autism and related conditions in society by acknowledging that neurodivergence is not something that needs to be cured and that the idea of curing it makes no conceptual sense because differences like autism are so pervasive that removing the autistic parts of the person is tantamount to replacing the autistic person by a different person. An important aim is also changing the language from the current "condition, disease, disorder, or illness"-based nomenclature, "broadening the understanding of healthy or independent living", acknowledging new types of autonomy, and giving neurodivergent individuals more control over their interventions, including the type, timing, and whether there should be interventions at all.
Activists such as Jennifer White-Johnson have helped bring attention to the neurodiversity movement, by creating symbols of protest and recognition, including a combination of the black power fist and infinity symbol. (2026). 9781616899189, Princeton Architectural Press. ISBN 9781616899189
A 2009 study separated 27 students with conditions including autism, dyslexia, developmental coordination disorder, ADHD, and having suffered a stroke into two categories of self-view: "A 'difference' view—where neurodiversity was seen as a difference incorporating a set of strengths and weaknesses, or a 'medical/deficit' view—where neurodiversity was seen as a disadvantageous medical condition". They found that, although all of the students reported uniformly difficult schooling careers involving exclusion, abuse, and bullying, those who viewed themselves from the "difference" view (41% of the study cohort) "indicated higher academic self-esteem and confidence in their abilities and many (73%) expressed considerable career ambitions with positive and clear goals". Many of these students reported gaining this view of themselves through contact with neurodiversity advocates in online support groups.
A 2013 online survey which aimed to assess conceptions of autism and neurodiversity suggested that conception of autism as a difference, and not a deficit, is developmentally beneficial and "transcends a false dichotomy between celebrating differences and ameliorating deficit".
Neurodiversity advocate John Elder Robison argues that the disabilities and strengths conferred by neurological differences may be mutually inseparable. "When 99 neurologically identical people fail to solve a problem, it's often the 1% fellow who's different who holds the key. Yet that person may be disabled or disadvantaged most or all of the time. To neurodiversity proponents, people are disabled because they are at the edges of the bell curve, not because they are sick or broken."
According to a 2023 article, universities and post-secondary establishments would show more tolerance towards neurodivergent people. A tolerant environment can increase autonomy, leading to kindness and understanding among students. Higher education institutions offer counseling and support services to students. However, neurodivergent students face particular challenges that impair their ability to receive consistent support and care. Additionally, counseling and support services face a lack of funding, personnel, and specialists that can adequately support neurodivergent students. Overall, these services work for some students and not for others.
Nachman and colleagues reviewed several articles published by two-year community colleges and found some discrepancies in the way that they perceived and categorized "disabled" students and "non-disabled" students. They found that all of the articles were attempting to normalize disability. Many of them put a distinct separation between typical and atypical learners as well as their potential academic achievement. Nachman also found that many of the articles showed a lack of autonomy for neurodivergent students. They had little power in regard to academic choices and classroom management.
In a systematic review that considered developmental dyslexia as "an expression of neurodiversity", it was suggested that neurodiversity is not yet an established concept in the workplace, and therefore, support from social relationships and work accommodations is minimal. Furthermore, another systematic review that focused on pharmacological and combined pharmacological/psychosocial interventions for adults with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder found that there were few workplace-based intervention studies, and suggested that additional research needs to be conducted to figure out how to best support neurodivergent employees in the workplace.
In the United States, the Department of Defense officially bars all autistic individuals from joining the military. However, a soldier diagnosed with autism while already on active duty can continue to serve. This often leads to individuals pursuing a diagnosis in secret, as they fear it could jeopardize their careers. Advocates like Cortney Weinbaum argue that the military should embrace neurodiversity to enhance national security and that the U.S. government is wrong to classify neurodivergent individuals as disabled. They recommend systematic reforms, including providing accommodations, updating job descriptions, and training staff.; ; ;
In Sweden, a policy of excluding autistic individuals from military service has led to legal challenges. While Sweden made changes to allow some individuals with mild ADHD to serve, it has maintained its strict exclusion of those with autism. This has prompted several lawsuits from neurodiversity advocates, who argue the policy is discriminatory. Erik Fenn, who was initially denied enlistment due to his autism diagnosis, successfully sued the government and was deemed eligible for conscription. As of early 2025, Fenn is serving, and the Swedish military is facing multiple lawsuits over its exclusionary policies.; ; ; ; ;
Higher awareness and acceptance through social media can lead people to self-identify as neurodivergent. Generally, self-diagnosis is discouraged in psychiatry because it is thought to be wrong more often than a professional assessment and because it is said that it trivializes challenges by turning them into fashion labels. Robert Chapman, in contrast, questions the reliability of professional autism assessments as they often overlook the experiences of individuals who are not white cisgender male children and states that self-identification is not done for fashion purposes but because it helps understanding one's strengths and challenges. Sue Fletcher-Watson argues that because autism should not be classified as a disorder and no treatment should follow a diagnosis, autistic individuals should have the autonomy to self-identify as autistic, liberating them from the power of medical professionals in defining autism and determining who belongs to the autistic community. A group of researchers created a preliminary self-report questionnaire for autistic people.
Similarly, healthcare systems may benefit from hiring neurodivergent individuals to gain a unique perspective when caring for patients. Some healthcare staff agree that inviting neurodivergent individuals to join patient advisory groups or hiring them as staff are essential steps to acceptance and integration in the workforce. Neurodivergent people's unique strengths can be vital to health system innovation and improvement efforts. One example of the push toward this is the Stanford Neurodiversity Project, in which one of their goals is to discover the strengths of neurodivergent individuals and make use of their talents to increase innovation and productivity of their society, such as working in the field of healthcare and medicine.
Neurodiversity has also recently been investigated as a new way of working within neurodevelopmental clinics in the UK. A team of researchers in Portsmouth, England, have created an approach in aiding neurodivergent individuals known as PANDA, or the Portsmouth Alliance Neurodiversity Approach. This approach may help medical and healthcare professionals facilitate understanding, communication and early support for children who may identify as being neurodivergent.
Therapeutic programs and interventions are also being investigated for the neurodivergent community. Self-determination programs that help neurodivergent individuals achieve their goals in life have been found to be successful, with neurodivergent participants finding it to be "appropriate, acceptable, and feasible". Various approaches (e.g., eye-tracking, longitudinal data, computational modeling) in understanding perceptual decision-making in neurodivergent individuals are also being studied and the implications it may have in the therapeutic environment in working with the neurodivergent population.
Another form of therapeutic intervention in that has been investigated in neurodivergent individuals is the use of Naturalistic Developmental Behavioral Interventions (NDBIs). NDBIs have been shown to have positive effects on language and social-communication while, at the same time, respecting individuals' needs and autonomy. One of the key goals in this type of intervention is putting the focus of therapy on the neurodivergent individual themselves in the creation of intervention goals, procedures, and outcomes. In doing so, they are likely to be seen as more acceptable, useful, and effective to that individual.
In addition to support from neurodiversity advocates for affirming therapies, concerns have been raised about the role of certain approaches such as applied behavior analysis. Neurodivergent individuals and activists tend to emphasize that these interventions aim to enforce conformity with expectations of society rather than addressing the needs of the person receiving the intervention. While a large body of research on the role of ABA seems to support its efficacy in cognitive and behavioral outcomes, a meta-analysis by Sandbank et al. challenges the evidence. Additionally, there are concerns regarding long-term mental health impacts and with the measures used in determining social validity by those who have raised these concerns. In addition to advocates from within the neurodivergent community, some behavioral analysts have begun to reconsider the role of these therapies with the context of a neurodiversity framework.
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