Product Code Database
Microplastics are "synthetic solid particles or matrices, with regular or irregular shape and with size ranging from 1 μm to 5 mm, of either primary or secondary manufacturing origin, which are insoluble in water."
Microplastics cause pollution by entering Nature from a variety of sources, including cosmetics, clothing, construction, renovation, food packaging, and industrial processes.
The term microplastics is used to differentiate from larger, non-microscopic plastic waste. Two classifications of microplastics are currently recognized. Primary microplastics include any plastic fragments or that are already 5.0 mm in size or less before entering the environment. These include microfibers from clothing, microbeads, plastic glitter and plastic pellets (also known as nurdles). (2025). 9782831718279 ISBN 9782831718279 Secondary microplastics arise from the degradation (breakdown) of larger plastic products through natural weathering processes after entering the environment. Such sources of secondary microplastics include water and soda bottles, fishing nets, plastic bags, microwave , tea bags and tire wear.
Both types are recognized to persist in the environment at high levels, particularly in aquatic and , where they cause water pollution.
Approximately 35% of all ocean microplastics come from textiles or clothing, primarily due to the erosion of polyester, Acrylic fiber, or nylon-based clothing, often during the washing process. Microplastics also accumulate in the air and terrestrial ecosystems. Airborne microplastics have been detected in the atmosphere, as well as indoors and outdoors.
Because plastics degrade slowly (often over hundreds to thousands of years), (2025). 9783319616148, Springer. ISBN 9783319616148 See Section 3, "Environmental Degradation of Synthetic Polymers". microplastics have a high probability of ingestion, incorporation into, and bioaccumulation in the bodies and tissues of many organisms. The toxic chemicals that come from both the ocean and runoff can also biomagnification up the food chain. In terrestrial ecosystems, microplastics have been demonstrated to reduce the viability of soil ecosystems. As of 2023, the cycle and movement of microplastics in the environment was not fully known.
Microplastics are likely to degrade into smaller nanoplastics through chemical weathering processes, mechanical breakdown, and even through the digestive processes of animals. Nanoplastics are a subset of microplastics and they are smaller than 1 μm (1 micrometer or 1000 nm). Nanoplastics cannot be seen by the human eye.
Microplastics are common in our world today. In 2014, it was Estimation that there are between 15 and 51 trillion individual pieces of microplastic in the world's oceans, which was Estimation to weigh between 93,000 and 236,000 metric tons. Under the influence of sunlight, wind, waves and other factors, plastic degrades into small fragments known as microplastics, or even nanoplastics.
"It's actually classified as a very high priority high contaminant by the EPA... when they litter or put something in a landfill, the plastic will break down into smaller and smaller particles. And eventually, they become microplastics... They're in the air, they're in the water, they're in the soil." University of Tennessee professor Mike McKinney.
Microplastic fibers enter the environment as a by-product during wear and tear and from the washing of . Tires, composed partly of synthetic styrene-butadiene rubber, erode into tiny plastic and rubber particles as they are used and become dust particles. 2.0–5.0 mm plastic pellets, used to create other plastic products, enter ecosystems due to spillages and other accidents.
A 2015 Norwegian Environment Agency review report about microplastics stated it would be beneficial to classify these sources as primary, as long as microplastics from these sources are added from human society since the "start of the pipe", and their emissions are inherently a result of human material and product use and not secondary to fragmentation in the nature.Sundt, Peter, and Schulze, Per-Erik: "Sources of microplastic-pollution to the marine environment", "Mepex for the Norwegian Environment Agency", 2015
Nanoplastics are thought to be a risk to environmental and human health. Due to their small size, nanoplastics can cross cellular membranes and affect the functioning of cells. Nanoplastics are lipophilic and models show that polyethylene nanoplastics can be incorporated into the hydrophobic core of lipid bilayers. Nanoplastics are also shown to cross the epithelial membrane of fish accumulating in various organs including the gallbladder, pancreas, and the brain. Nanoplastics are believed to cause interruptions in bone cell activities, causing improper bone formation. Little is known on adverse health effects of nanoplastics in organisms including humans. In zebrafish ( Danio rerio), polystyrene nanoplastics can induce a stress response pathway altering glucose and cortisol levels, which is potentially tied to behavioral changes in stress phases. In Daphnia, polystyrene nanoplastic can be ingested by the freshwater cladoceran Daphnia pulex and affect its growth and reproduction as well as induce stress defense, including the ROS production and MAPK-HIF-1/NF-κB-mediated antioxidant system. Nanoplastics can also Adsorption toxic chemical pollutants, such as antibiotics, which enable the selective association with antibiotic-resistant bacteria, resulting in the dissemination of nanoplastics and antibiotic-resistant bacteria by bacterivorous nematode Caenorhabditis elegans across the soil.
Textiles, tires, and urban dust account for over 80% of all microplastics in the seas and the environment. Microplastic is also a type of airborne particulates and is found to prevail in air. Paint appears as the largest source of microplastic leakage into the ocean and waterways (1.9 Mt/year), outweighing all other sources of microplastic leakage. Microplastics could contribute up to 30% of the Great Pacific Garbage Patch polluting the world's oceans and, in many developed countries, are a bigger source of marine plastic pollution than the visible larger pieces of marine litter, according to a 2017 IUCN report. Oceanic microplastics are a common source of heavy metals; due to the inclusion of coloring compounds containing chromium, manganese, cobalt, copper, zinc, zirconium, molybdenum, silver, tin, praseodymium, neodymium, erbium, tungsten, iridium, gold, lead, or uranium.
65 million microplastics are released into water sources every day. In 2017, more than eight million tons of plastics entered the oceans, greater than 33 times as much as that of the total plastics accumulated in the oceans by 2015. One consequence of this is marine life consumption of microplastics. It is estimated that Europeans are exposed to about 11,000 particles/person/year of microplastics due to shellfish consumption.
Microplastics may enter drinking water sources in a number of ways: from surface runoff (e.g. after a rain event), to wastewater effluent (both treated and untreated), combined sewer overflows, industrial effluent, degraded plastic waste, and atmospheric deposition. Surface run-off and wastewater effluent are recognized as the two main sources, but better data are required to quantify the sources and associate them with more specific plastic waste streams. Plastic bottles and caps that are used in bottled water have been confirmed as sources of microplastics in drinking-water.
Microplastics may also have been widely distributed in soil, especially in agricultural systems. They (especially with negative charge) can get into the water transport system of plants, and then move to the roots, stems, leaves, and fruits. Once microplastics enter agricultural systems through sewage sludge, compost, and plastic mulching, they will cause food pollution, which may increase the risk of human exposure.
Washing machine manufacturers have also reviewed research into whether washing machine filters can reduce the amount of microfiber fibers that need to be treated by sewage treatment facilities.
These microfibers have been found to persist throughout the food chain from zooplankton to larger animals such as whales. The primary fiber that persists throughout the textile industry is polyester which is a cheap cotton alternative that can be easily manufactured. However, these types of fibers contribute greatly to the persistence of microplastics in terrestrial, aerial, and marine ecosystems. The process of washing clothes causes garments to lose an average of over 100 fibers per liter of water. This has been linked with health effects possibly caused by the release of , dispersive dyes, , and from manufacturing. The occurrence of these types of fibers in households has been shown to represent 33% of all fibers in indoor environments.
Textile fibers have been studied in both indoor and outdoor environments to determine the average human exposure. The indoor concentration was found to be 1.0–60.0 fibers/m3, whereas the outdoor concentration was much lower at 0.3–1.5 fibers/m3. The deposition rate indoors was 1586–11,130 fibers per day/m3 which accumulates to around 190–670 fibers/mg of dust. The largest concern with these concentrations is that it increases exposure to children and the elderly, which can cause adverse health effects.
Some of the contamination likely comes from the process of bottling and packaging the water, and possibly from filters used to purify the water.
Materials containing polyvinyl chloride (PVC), polycarbonate, polypropylene, and acrylic, can degrade overtime releasing microplastics. During the construction process single use plastic containers and wrappers are discarded adding to plastic waste. These plastics are difficult to recycle and end up in landfills where they break down over a long period of time causing potential leaching into the soil and the release of airborne microplastics. Airborne microplastic dust is also generated by deterioration of building materials
Due to the environmental impact from plastic waste creation in the construction and renovation sectors waste management practices that address this issue are required. Although many researchers have investigated the use of wastes, such as plastic, in the construction process in an effort to reduce waste and increase sustainability, construction is not an environmentally-friendly activity by nature. Efforts have been made to reduce plastic waste by adding it to concrete as agglomerates. However, one solution for resolving the problem from the large amount of plastic wastes generated could bring another serious problem of leaching of microplastics. The unknown part of this area is huge and needs prompt investigation.
Around twenty percent of all plastics and seventy percent of all polyvinyl chloride (PVC) produced in the world each year are used by the construction industry. It is predicted that much more will be produced and used in the future. "In Europe, approximately 20% of all plastics produced are used in the construction sector including different classes of plastics, waste and nanomaterials."
Indirect use (packaging of construction materials) examples:
Direct use (construction materials containing plastics) examples:
Although many companies have committed to phasing out the use of microbeads in their products, there are at least 80 different facial scrub products that are still being sold with microbeads as a main component. This contributes to the 80 metric tons of microbead discharge per year by the United Kingdom alone, which not only has a negative impact upon the wildlife and food chain, but also upon levels of toxicity, as microbeads have been proven to absorb dangerous chemicals such as pesticides and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons. The restriction proposal by the European Chemicals Agency (ECHA) and reports by the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) and TAUW suggest that there are more than 500 microplastic ingredients that are widely used in cosmetics and personal care products.
Even when microbeads are removed from cosmetic products, there are still harmful products being sold with plastics in them. For example, acrylate copolymers cause toxic effects for waterways and animals if they are polluted. Acrylate copolymers also can emit when used in body products which increases a person's chances of cancer. Countries like New Zealand which have banned microbeads often pass over other polymers such as acrylate copolymers, which can be just as toxic to people and the environment.
After the Microbead-Free Waters Act of 2015, the use of microbeads in toothpaste and other rinse-off cosmetic products has been discontinued in the US, however since 2015 many industries have instead shifted toward using FDA-approved "rinse-off" Metallised film glitter as their primary abrasive agent.
One study analyzed the plastic-derived chemical called polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) in the stomachs of short-tailed shearwaters. It found that one-fourth of the birds had higher-brominated congeners that are not naturally found in their prey. However, the PBDE got into the birds' systems through plastic that was found in the stomachs of the birds. It is therefore not just the plastics that are being transferred through the food chain but the chemicals from the plastics as well.
Many industrial sites in which convenient raw plastics are frequently used are located near bodies of water. If spilled during production, these materials may enter the surrounding environment, polluting waterways. "More recently, Operation Cleansweep, a joint initiative of the American Chemistry Council and Society of the Plastics Industry, is aiming for industries to commit to zero pellet loss during their operations". Overall, there is a significant lack of research aimed at specific industries and companies that contribute to microplastics pollution.
A report made in February 2020 by Oceans Asia, an organization committed to advocacy and research on marine pollution, confirms "the presence of face masks of different types and colors in an ocean in Hong Kong".
Microplastics have been detected in both the primary and secondary treatment stages of the plants. A groundbreaking 1998 study suggested that microplastic fibers would be a persistent indicator of sewage sludges and wastewater treatment plant outfalls. A study estimated that about one particle per liter of microplastics are being released back into the environment, with a removal efficiency of about 99.9%. A 2016 study showed that most microplastics are actually removed during the primary treatment stage where solid skimming and sludge settling are used. When these treatment facilities are functioning properly, the contribution of microplastics into oceans and surface water environments from WWTPs is not disproportionately large. Many studies show that while wastewater treatment plants certainly reduce the microplastic load on waterways, with current technological developments they are not able to clean the waters fully of this pollutant.
Sewage sludge is used for soil fertilizer in some countries, which exposes plastics in the sludge to the weather, sunlight, and other biological factors, causing fragmentation. As a result, microplastics from these biosolids often end up in storm drains and eventually into bodies of water. In addition, some studies show that microplastics do pass through filtration processes at some WWTPs. According to a study from the UK, samples taken from sewage sludge disposal sites on the coasts of six continents contained an average one particle of microplastic per liter. A significant amount of these particles was of clothing fibers from washing machine effluent.
The estimated per capita emission ranges from 0.23 to 4.7 kg/year, with a global average of 0.81 kg/year. The emissions from car tires (wear reaching 100%) are substantially higher than those of other sources of microplastics, e.g., airplane tires (2%), artificial turf (wear 12–50%), brakes (wear 8%), and road markings (wear 5%). In the case of road markings, recent field study indicated that they were protected by a layer of glass beads and their contribution was only between 0.1 and 4.3 g/person/year, which would constitute approximately 0.7% of all of the secondary microplastics emissions; this value agrees with some emissions estimates.Verschoor, A., van Herwijnen, R., Posthuma, C., Klesse, K., Werner, S., 2017. Assessment document of land-based inputs of microplastics in the marine environment. Publication 705/2017. OSPAR Commission: London, United Kingdom. Emissions and pathways depend on local factors like road type or sewage systems. The relative contribution of tire wear and tear to the total global amount of plastics ending up in our oceans is estimated to be 5–10%. In air, 3–7% of the Particulates (PM2.5) is estimated to consist of tire wear and tear, indicating that it may contribute to the global health burden of air pollution which has been projected by the World Health Organization at 3 million deaths in 2012. Pollution from tire wear and tear also enters the food chain, but further research is needed to assess human health risks.
Microplastics contain two different types of chemicals. The first are additives and polymeric raw materials such as monomers or oligomers. Additives are chemicals intentionally added during plastic production to give plastic qualities like color and transparency and to enhance the performance of plastic products to improve both the resistance to degradation by ozone, temperature, light radiation, mold, bacteria and humidity, and mechanical, thermal and electrical resistance. Examples of additives in microplastics are inert or reinforcing fillers, plasticizers, antioxidants, UV stabilizers, lubricants, dyes and flame-retardants The second type of chemicals are ones absorbed from the surrounding environment.
According to a comprehensive review of scientific evidence published by the European Union's Scientific Advice Mechanism in 2019, microplastics were present in every part of the environment. While there was no evidence of widespread ecological risk from microplastic pollution yet, risks were likely to become widespread within a century if pollution continued at its current rate.
As of 2020 microplastics had been detected in freshwater systems including marshes, streams, ponds, lakes, and rivers in Europe, North America, South America, Asia, and Australia. Samples collected across 29 Great Lakes tributaries from six states in the United States were found to contain plastic particles, 98% of which were microplastics ranging in size from 0.355mm to 4.75mm. Likewise, they have been found in high mountains, at great distances from their source.
Deep layer ocean sediment surveys in China (2020) show the presence of plastics in deposition layers far older than the invention of plastics, leading to suspected underestimation of microplastics in surface sample ocean surveys.
In September 2021 Hurricane Larry deposited, during the storm peak, 113,000 particles/m2/day as it passed over Newfoundland, Canada. Back-trajectory modelling and polymer type analysis indicated that those microplastics may have been ocean-sourced as the hurricane traversed the North Atlantic garbage patch of the North Atlantic Gyre.
As of 2023 there was rapid growth of microplastic pollution research, with marine and estuarine environments most frequently studied. Researchers have called for better sharing of research data that might lead to effective solutions.
A 2023 study formally identified plasticosis as a fibrotic disease caused by plastic ingestion, distinguishing it from general physical damage by detailing the chronic tissue remodeling and inflammation it induces in seabird digestive systems.
Consequences of plastic degradation and pollution release over long term have mostly been overlooked. The large amounts of plastic in the environment, exposed to degradation, with years of decay and release of toxic compounds to follow was referred to as toxicity debt.
Micro- and nanoplastics can become embedded in animals' tissue through ingestion or respiration. The initial demonstration of bioaccumulation of these particles in animals was conducted under controlled conditions by exposing them to high concentrations of microplastics over extended periods, accumulating these particles in their gut and gills due to ingestion and respiration, respectively. Various annelid species, such as deposit-feeding ( Arenicola marina), have been shown to accumulate microplastics embedded in their gastrointestinal tract. Similarly, many , like the shore crab Carcinus maenas, have been seen to integrate microplastics into both their respiratory and digestive tracts.
Plastic particles are often mistaken by fish for food, which can block their digestive tracts, sending incorrect feeding signals to the brains of the animals. However, research in 2021 revealed that fish ingest microplastics inadvertently rather than intentionally. The first occurrence of bioaccumulation of micro and nanoplastics in wild animals was documented in the skin mucosa of salmon, and it was attributed to the resemblance between nanoplastics and the outer shell of the viruses that the mucosa traps. This discovery was entirely serendipitous, as the research team had developed a detailed molecular separation process for the components of fish skin with the primary objective of isolating chitin from a vertebrate for the first time.
A study done at the Argentinean coastline of the Rio de la Plata estuary, found the presence of microplastics in the guts of 11 species of coastal freshwater fish. These 11 species of fish represented four different feeding habits: detritivore, planktivore, omnivore and ichthyophagous. This study is one of the few so far to show the ingestion of microplastics by freshwater organisms.
It can take up to 14 days for microplastics to pass through an animal (as compared to a normal digestion period of 2 days), but enmeshment of the particles in animals' can prevent elimination entirely. When microplastic-laden animals are consumed by predators, the microplastics are then incorporated into the bodies of higher trophic-level feeders. For example, scientists have reported plastic accumulation in the stomachs of lantern fish which are small filter feeders and are the main prey for commercial fish like tuna and swordfish.
Microplastics also absorb chemical pollutants that can be transferred into the organism's tissues. Small animals are at risk of reduced food intake due to false satiation and resulting starvation or other physical harm from the microplastics.
Zooplankton ingest microplastics beads (1.7–30.6 μm) and excrete fecal matter contaminated with microplastics. Along with ingestion, the microplastics stick to the appendages and exoskeleton of the zooplankton. Zooplankton, among other marine organisms, consume microplastics because they emit similar infochemicals, notably dimethyl sulfide, just as phytoplankton do. Plastics such as high-density polyethylene (HDPE), low-density polyethylene (LDPE), and polypropylene (PP) produce dimethyl sulfide odors. These types of plastics are commonly found in plastic bags, food storage containers, and bottle caps. Green and red filaments of plastics are found in the planktonic organisms and in seaweeds.
, such as benthic , who are non-selective scavengers that feed on marine debris, ingest large amounts of sediment. It has been shown that four species of sea cucumber ( Thyonella gemmate, Holothuria floridana, H. grisea and Cucumaria frondosa) ingested between 2- and 20-fold more PVC fragments and between 2- and 138-fold more nylon line fragments (as much as 517 fibers per organism) based on plastic-to-sand grain ratios from each sediment treatment. These results suggest that individuals may be selectively ingesting plastic particles. This contradicts the accepted indiscriminate feeding strategy of sea cucumbers, and may occur in all presumed non-selective feeders when presented with microplastics.
The larvae of caddisflies (Trichoptera), freshwater insects that build protective cases, now also include microplastic particles into their builds. In 2023, caddisfly cases were rediscovered in the natural history collection of the Naturalis Biodiversity Center, which were collected in 1971 and 1986, yet already contained microplastics. This discovery predates the coining of the term microplastic in 2004, as well as the initiation of microplastic research in freshwater environments. These historical specimens thus provide a unique opportunity to retrospectively study the occurrence and impact of microplastics in aquatic ecosystems. A recent 2025 study revealed that in certain streams, over half of all caddisfly cases incorporated artificial materials.
Bivalvia, important aquatic filter feeders, have also been shown to ingest microplastics and nanoplastics. Upon exposure to microplastics, bivalve filtration ability decreases. Multiple cascading effects occur as a result, such as immunotoxicity and neurotoxicity. Decreased immune function occurs due to reduced phagocytosis and NF-κB gene activity. Impaired neurological function is a result of the inhibition of Cholinesterase and suppression of neurotransmitter regulatory enzymes. When exposed to microplastics, bivalves also experience oxidative stress, indicating an impaired ability to detoxify compounds within the body, which can ultimately damage DNA. Bivalve gametes and larvae are also impaired when exposed to microplastics. Rates of developmental arrest, and developmental malformities increase, while rates of fertilization decrease. When bivalves have been exposed to microplastics as well as other pollutants such as POPs, mercury or in lab settings, toxic effects were shown to be aggravated.
Not only fish and free-living organisms can ingest microplastics. Some corals such as Pocillopora verrucosa have also been found to ingest microplastics. Scleractinia, which are primary reef-builders, have been shown to ingest microplastics under laboratory conditions. Researchers from Japan and Thailand investigating microplastics in coral have found that all three parts of the coral anatomy (surface mucus, tissue, and skeleton) contain microplastics. According to recent study, mall-polyp corals (P. cf. damicornis and P. lutea) demonstrated a higher degree of MP accumulation than the large-polyp corals. The interplay of precipitation, wind patterns, and ocean currents considerably influences MP abundance in corals by increasing the exposure of corals to elevated MP concentrations. Additionally, since the reef site was situated near a large rock formation, it experienced strong water movements due to constant wave action. MPs deposited in skeletons are likely to be preserved on a millennium timescale, even if the corals die. Thus, given the extensive presence of coral reefs worldwide, corals can accumulate a considerable number of MPs, thereby acting as a sink for ocean plastics.
While the effects of ingestion on these corals has not been studied, corals can easily become stressed and bleach. Microplastics have been shown to stick to the exterior of the corals after exposure in the laboratory. The adherence to the outside of corals can potentially be harmful, because corals cannot handle sediment or any Particulates on their exterior and slough it off by secreting mucus, expending energy in the process, increasing the likelihood of mortality. (2025). 9789048126385 ISBN 9789048126385 The thermodynamic properties, development, and nutrition of corals are thought to be negatively impacted by the engaged consumption and detached exterior bond strength of MPs. This could result in decreased feed intake, decreased photosynthetic efficiency, altered metabolic rates, decreased bone calcification, and even skin chlorination and necrotizing.
Marine biologists in 2017 discovered that three-quarters of the underwater seagrass in the Turneffe Atoll off the coast of Belize had microplastic fibers, shards, and beads stuck to it. The plastic pieces had been overgrown by (organisms that naturally stick themselves to seagrass). Seagrass is part of the Coral reef ecosystem and is fed on by parrotfish, which in turn are eaten by humans. These findings, published in Marine Pollution Bulletin, may be "the first discovery of microplastics on aquatic vascular plants... and only the second discovery of microplastics on marine plant life anywhere in the world."
Research published in 2023 demonstrated that microplastic exposure impaired the cognitive performance of hermit crabs, which could potentially impact their survivability.
Microbes also live on the surface of microplastics, and can form a biofilm which, according to a 2019 study, has a unique structure and possesses a special risk, because microplastic biofilms have been proven to provide a novel habitat for colonization that increases overlap between different species, thus spreading and antibiotic resistant genes through horizontal gene transfer. Then, due to rapid movement through waterways, these pathogens can be moved from their origin to another location where a specific pathogen may not be naturally present, spreading potential disease. There is concern microplastic pollutants may act as a vector for antibiotic resistant genes and bacteria. Clinically important bacterial genus like Eggerthella were more than three times enriched on riverine microplastics compared to water.
In 2023, plasticosis, a new disease caused solely by plastics, was discovered in seabirds who had scarred digestive tracts from ingesting plastic waste. "When birds ingest small pieces of plastic, ...it inflames the digestive tract. Over time, the persistent inflammation causes tissues to become scarred and disfigured, affecting digestion, growth and survival."
Additives added to plastics during manufacture may leach out upon ingestion, potentially causing serious harm to the organism. Endocrine disruption by may affect the reproductive health of humans and wildlife alike.
Microplastics often contain chemical additives like phthalates and bisphenol A (BPA), which are known endocrine-disrupting chemicals. Microplastics and their additives can disrupt the hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal (HPG) axis, a critical regulator of male reproductive function.
A study from Harvard found that microplastics have been linked to "inflammation, cell death, lung and liver effects, changes in the gut microbiome, and altered lipid and hormone metabolism."
A number of studies have concluded that microplastics create inflammatory effects in the human body. An in vitro study found that ultrafine particles composed of low-toxicity material, such as polystyrene, have proinflammatory activity as a consequence of their large surface area. Another study found pro-inflammatory factors and debris in human joints from polyethylene components used as prostheses, for example knee and hip replacements.
In vitro studies have also shown that different polystyrene nanoparticles can induce oxidative stress, apoptosis and autophagic cell death in cell context-dependent manner. Despite these toxic effects, no obvious severe toxicity was observed in liver, duodenum, ileum, jejunum, large intestine, testes, lungs, heart, spleen, and kidneys of mice following oral exposure of a mixture of microplastics.
Recent studies have revealed that microplastics and nanoplastics can impair cellular metabolism in both in vitro and in vivo models. After exposure to negatively charged carboxylated polystyrene nanoparticles measuring 20 nm, basolateral K+ ion channels were found to be activated in human lung cells. The nanoplastic particles caused persistent and concentration-dependent increases in short-circuit currents by the activation of the ion channels and the stimulation of Cl− and HCO3− ion efflux. Furthermore, 30 nm polystyrene nanoparticles induced large vesicle-like structures in the endocytic route in macrophages and human cancer cell lines A549, HepG-2, and HCT116. As a result, vesicle transport and the distribution of proteins involved in cytokinesis are blocked, thus stimulating the formation of binucleated cells.
Biodegradation is another possible solution to large amounts of microplastic waste. In this process, microorganisms consume and decompose synthetic polymers by means of enzymes. These plastics can then be used in the form of energy and as a source of carbon once broken down. The microbes could potentially be used to treat sewage wastewater, which would decrease the amount of microplastics that pass through into the surrounding environments.
Fionn Ferreira, winner of the 2019 Google Science Fair, is developing a device for the removal of microplastic particles from water using a ferrofluid.
In addition, some bacteria have adapted to eat plastic, and some bacteria species have been genetically modified to eat (certain types of) plastics. Other than degrading microplastics, microbes had been engineered in a novel way to capture microplastics in their biofilm matrix from polluted samples for easier removal of such pollutants. The microplastics in the biofilms can then be released with an engineered 'release' mechanism via biofilm dispersal to facilitate with microplastics recovery.
Absorption devices include made of cotton and squid bones, which may be scalable for water remediation projects.
In April 2013, Italian artist Maria Cristina Finucci founded The Garbage Patch State in order to create awareness, under the patronage of UNESCO and the Italian Ministry of the Environment.
In February 2013 the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) launched its "Trash-Free Waters" initiative to prevent single-use plastic wastes from ending up in waterways and ultimately the ocean. As of 2018, EPA collaborated with the United Nations Environment Programme–Caribbean Environment Programme (UNEP-CEP) and the Peace Corps to reduce and remove trash in the Caribbean Sea. EPA also funded various projects in the San Francisco Bay Area including one that is aimed at reducing the use of single-use plastics such as , spoons and straws, from three University of California campuses.
The Florida Microplastic Awareness Project (FMAP), a group of volunteers who search for microplastics in coastal water samples Many organizations advocate action to counter microplastic, spreading microplastic awareness. Global advocacy aimed at achieving the target of the United Nations Sustainable Development Goal 14 hopes to prevent and significantly reduce all forms of marine pollution by 2025.
In February 2022, the initiative stated that it would increase its financing aim to €4 billion by the end of 2025. At the same time, the European Bank for Reconstruction and Development (EBRD) became the Clean Oceans Initiative's sixth member. By February 2023, the program had met 65% of its goal, with €2.6 billion spent in 60 projects benefiting more than 20 million people across Africa, Asia, Latin America, and Europe. By the beginning of 2022, more than 80% of this target was achieved, with €1.6 billion being used in long-term financing for public and private sector initiatives that minimise the discharge of plastics, microplastics, and other pollutants through enhanced solid waste, wastewater, and storm water management.
In January 2021, the European Investment Bank and the Asian Development Bank had formed the Clean and Sustainable Ocean Partnership to promote cooperative projects for a clean and sustainable ocean and blue economy in the Asia-Pacific region.
In January 2019, the European Chemicals Agency (ECHA) proposed to restrict intentionally added microplastics.
The European Union participates with 10% of the global total, around 150 000 tonnes of microplastics each year. This is 200 grams per person per year, with significant regional variance in per-capita microplastic creation.
The European Commission's Circular Economy Action Plan sets out mandatory requirements for the recycling and waste reduction of key products e.g. plastic packaging. The plan starts the process to restrict addition of microplastics in products. It mandates measures for capturing more microplastics at all stages of the lifecycle of a product. E.g. the plan would examine different policies which aim to reduce release of secondary microplastics from tires and textiles. The European Commission plans to update the Urban Waste Water Treatment Directive to further address microplastic waste and other pollution. They aim to protect the environment from industrial and urban waste water discharge. A revision to the EU Drinking Water Directive was provisionally approved to ensure microplastics are regularly monitored in drinking water. It would require countries must propose solutions if a problem is found.
The REACH restriction on synthetic polymer microparticles entered into force on 17 October 2023.
On August 9, 2012, the Haitian government published a decree prohibiting the production, importation, marketing and use, of polyethylene bags and expanded polystyrene objects for foodstuffs. However, 14 Caribbean countries (more than a third) have banned single-use plastic bags and/or polystyrene containers.
On July 10, 2013, a second decree was published to once again prohibit "the importation, production or sale of expanded polystyrene articles for food use". In support of the second decree, the ministries of the Environment, Justice and Public Security, Trade and Industry as well as the Economy and Finance announced in a note published in January 2018 that specialists from the brigade will be deployed on the territory to force the application of the said decree.
On 25 July 2018, a microplastic reduction amendment was passed by the U.S. House of Representatives. The legislation, as part of the Save Our Seas Act designed to combat marine pollution, aims to support the NOAA's Marine Debris Program. In particular, the amendment is geared towards promoting NOAA's Great Lakes Land-Based Marine Debris Action Plan to increase testing, cleanup, and education around plastic pollution in the Great Lakes. President Donald Trump signed the re-authorization and amendment bill into effect on 11 October 2018.
Geophysics
Microplastics can increase the stability of breaking waves or sea foam, potentially affecting sea albedo or atmosphere-ocean gas exchange. Microplastics in the ocean may re-enter the atmosphere via sea spray.
Human health
Although the impacts of microplastics on human health are still being tested, their possible effects can be studied through human absorption models of nanomaterials that are produced by various industrial production processes. Several in vitro and in vivo studies have shown that micro- and nanoplastics were able to cause serious impacts on the human body, including physical stress and damage, apoptosis, necrosis, inflammation, oxidative stress and immune responses. Microplastic pollution has been associated with various adverse human health conditions, including respiratory disease and inflammation, but it was not known whether this was a causative effect. Microplastics accumulate in the brain, in particular polyethylenes.
Prevention
Dust control
Some of the suggested dust control measures include "lining cutting areas with tarps, cutting inside a protective tent, and using vacuum bags on power tool" when cutting materials like Trex and Azek. The cost of these measures is low." Street sweeping may also inhibited the spread of pollutants by gathering significant amounts of dirty materials from the extensive construction, renovation and reconstruction projects of road tunnels, bridges, roads and buildings.
Treatment
Some researchers have proposed incinerating plastics to use as energy, which is known as energy recovery. As opposed to losing the energy from plastics into the atmosphere in , this process turns some of the plastics back into energy that can be used. However, as opposed to recycling, this method does not diminish the amount of plastic material that is produced. Therefore, recycling plastics is considered a more efficient solution.
Filtering
Efficient removal of microplastics via waste water treatment plants is critical to prevent the transfer of microplastics from society to natural water systems. The captured microplastics in the treatment plants become part of the sludge produced by the plants. The problem is that this sludge is often used as farm fertilizer meaning the plastics enter waterways through runoff.
Collection devices
The Ocean Cleanup, a Dutch foundation, has developed various proposals, with the stated aim of "clearing 90% of the ocean's microplastics". The project has been met with widespread criticism from oceanographers and plastic pollution experts, despite positive news articles. It has been dismissed by almost all microplastics experts as unlikely to have any impact on the microplastics issue. Some of the reasons for this are it only targets plastics larger than 2 cm (this is larger than the criteria for a microplastic), is infeasible from an engineering standpoint and likely to fail rapidly, and it only captures plastic from the top 3m of depth (most plastic circulates much deeper than this.
Microplastics detection
Microplastics are difficult to detect due to their small sizes. Conventional methods include direct enumeration and measurement of sizes under light microscopy , and identification of microplastic polymer type via Raman microspectrometry . microbes were engineered to detect microplastics pollution via the activation of green fluorescent protein .
Education and recycling
Increasing education through recycling campaigns is another proposed solution for microplastic contamination. While this would be a smaller-scale solution, education has been shown to reduce littering, especially in urban environments where there are often large concentrations of plastic waste. If recycling efforts are increased, a cycle of plastic use and reuse would be created to decrease our waste output and production of new raw materials. In order to achieve this, states would need to employ stronger infrastructure and investment around recycling. Some advocate for improving recycling technology to be able to recycle smaller plastics to reduce the need for production of new plastics.
Funding
The Clean Oceans Initiative is a project launched in 2018 by the public institutions European Investment Bank, Agence Française de Développement and KfW. Their goal was to provide up to €2 billion in lending, grants and technical assistance until 2023 to develop projects that removed pollution from waterways (with a focus on macroplastics and microplastics) before it reached the oceans. The effort focuses on initiatives that demonstrate efficient methods of minimising plastic waste and microplastics output, emphasising on riverine and coastal areas. Cassa Depositi e Prestiti (CDP), the Italian national promotional institution and financial institution for development cooperation, and the Instituto de Crédito Oficial (ICO), the Spanish promotional bank, became new partners in October 2020. As of December 2023, The Clean Oceans Initiative had funded almost €3.2 billion, exceeding 80% of its €4 billion objective. Over 20 million people were supposed to benefit from the signed project proposals, which include better wastewater treatment in Sri Lanka, China, Egypt, and South Africa, solid waste management in Togo and Senegal, and stormwater management and flood protection in Benin, Morocco, and Ecuador.
Policy and legislation
With increasing awareness of the detrimental effects of microplastics on the environment, groups are now advocating for the removal and ban of microplastics from various products. One such campaign is "Beat the Microbead", which focuses on removing plastics from personal care products. The Adventurers and Scientists for Conservation run the Global Microplastics Initiative, a project to collect water samples to provide scientists with better data about microplastic dispersion in the environment. UNESCO has sponsored research and global assessment programs due to the trans-boundary issue that microplastic pollution constitutes.Morris and Chapman: "Marine Litter", "Green Facts: Facts on Health and the Environment", 2001–2015 These environmental groups will keep pressuring companies to remove plastics from their products in order to maintain healthy ecosystems.
China
In 2018, China banned the import of recyclables from other countries, forcing those other countries to re-examine their recycling schemes. The Yangtze River in China contributes 55% of all plastic waste going to the seas. Including microplastics, the Yangtze bears an average of 500,000 pieces of plastic per square kilometer. Scientific American reported that China dumps 30% of all plastics in the ocean.
European Union
The European Commission has noted the increased concern about the impact of microplastics on the environment. In April 2018, the European Commission's Group of Chief Scientific Advisors commissioned a comprehensive review of the scientific evidence on microplastic pollution through the European Union's Scientific Advice Mechanism. The evidence review was conducted by a working group nominated by European academies and delivered in January 2019. A Scientific Opinion based on the SAPEA report was presented to the Commission in 2019, on the basis of which the commission will consider whether policy changes should be proposed at a European level to curb microplastic pollution.
Haiti
Haiti has no collective system for waste collection and treatment, and thus plastic is often disposed of in urban water evacuation canals, which then degrade to form microplastics. Due to tropical temperatures and the plastics present in urban waterways could degrade more rapidly. Their discharge into Port-au-Prince Bay exposes this ecosystem to a number of environmental hazards pollutants contained in the waste, and to climatic hazards, particularly ocean acidification. (2025). 9781839687204 ISBN 9781839687204
Hong Kong
In 2024, the Hong Kong government implemented the first phase of its plastic restriction regulation. Promotional videos have also been produced to encourage citizens to bring their own utensils when dining out, to refrain from using disposable utensils, and to bring their own shopping bags when shopping. Merchants are prohibited from providing related plastic products to customers.
Japan
On 15 June 2018, the Japanese government passed a bill with the goal of reducing microplastic production and pollution, especially in aquatic environments. Proposed by the Environment Ministry and passed unanimously by the Upper House, this is also the first bill to pass in Japan that is specifically targeted at reducing microplastic production, specifically in the personal care industry with products such as face wash and toothpaste. This law is revised from previous legislation, which focused on removing plastic marine debris. It also focuses on increasing education and public awareness surrounding recycling and plastic waste. The Environment Ministry has also proposed a number of recommendations for methods to monitor microplastic quantities in the ocean (Recommendations, 2018). However, the legislation does not specify any penalties for those who continue manufacturing products with microplastics.
United Kingdom
The Environmental Protection (Microbeads) (England) Regulations 2017 ban the production of any rinse-off personal care products (such as exfoliants) containing microbeads. This particular law denotes specific penalties when it is not obeyed. Those who do not comply are required to pay a fine. In the event that a fine is not paid, product manufacturers may receive a stop notice, which prevents the manufacturer from continuing production until they have followed regulation preventing the use of microbeads. Criminal proceedings may occur if the stop notice is ignored.
United States
In the US, some states have taken action to mitigate the negative environmental effects of microplastics. In 2014, Illinois became the first US state to ban cosmetics containing microplastics. At the federal level, the Microbead-Free Waters Act 2015 was signed by President Barack Obama on 28 December 2015. The law bans "rinse-off" cosmetic products that perform an exfoliating function, such as toothpaste or face wash but does not apply to other products such as household cleaners. The act took effect on 1 July 2017, with respect to manufacturing, and 1 July 2018, with respect to introduction or delivery for introduction into interstate commerce.United States. Microbead-Free Waters Act of 2015. . Approved 28 December 2015. On 16 June 2020, California adopted a definition of 'microplastics in drinking water', setting the foundation for a long-term approach to studying their contamination and human health effects.
See also
Sources
Further reading
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