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The Maastrichtian ( ) is, in the International Commission on Stratigraphy (ICS) geologic timescale, the latest age (uppermost stage) of the Late Cretaceous Epoch or Upper Cretaceous Series, the Cretaceous geologic period or System, and of the Mesozoic geologic era or Erathem. It spanned the interval from . The Maastrichtian was preceded by the Campanian and succeeded by the Danian (part of the Paleogene and Paleocene). It is named after the city of Maastricht, the capital and largest city of the Limburg province in the Netherlands.
The Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event (formerly known as the Cretaceous–Tertiary extinction event) occurred at the end of this age. In this extinction event, many commonly recognized groups such as non-avian , and , as well as many other lesser-known groups, died out. The cause of the extinction is most commonly linked to an asteroid about wide colliding with Earth, ending the Cretaceous.
The base of the Maastrichtian Stage is at the first appearance of ammonite species Pachydiscus. At the original type locality near Maastricht, the stratigraphic record was later found to be incomplete. A reference profile for the base was then appointed in a section along the Ardour river called Grande Carrière, close to the village of Tercis-les-Bains in southwestern France.
The Maastrichtian is roughly coeval with the Lancian North American Land Mammal Age.
The Pacific Plate was rapidly growing in size as the surrounding oceanic plates were consumed by subduction, and the Pacific-Izanagi Ridge was rapidly approaching Asia.
Eruption of the Deccan Traps large igneous province began during the Maastrichtian, at around 67 million years ago. This is thought to be a consequence of India drifting over the Réunion hotspot.
Northern Alaska's mean annual temperature was 6.3 °C. South-central Alaska had a mean annual temperature of 7.42 ± 1.2 °C, a warm monthly mean temperature of 17.08 ± 1.6 °C, and a cold monthly mean temperature of − 2.31 ± 1.9 °C.
Stratigraphic definitions
Definition
The Maastrichtian was introduced into scientific literature by Belgium geologist André Hubert Dumont in 1849, after studying rock strata of the Chalk Group close to the Netherlands city of Maastricht. These strata are now classified as the Maastricht Formation – both the formation and stage derive their names from the city. The Maastricht Formation is known for its fossils from this age, most notably those of the giant sea reptile Mosasaurus, which in turn derives its name from the nearby river Meuse ( mosa being Latin for the river Maas).
(2025). 9780444506474 ISBN 9780444506474 The top of the Maastrichtian Stage is defined to be at the iridium anomaly at the Cretaceous–Paleogene boundary (K–Pg boundary), which is also characterised by the extinction of many groups of life.
Subdivision
The Maastrichtian is commonly subdivided into two substages (Upper and Lower) and three ammonite . The biozones are (from young to old):
Palaeogeography
The breakup of Pangaea was nearly complete in the Maastrichtian, with Australia beginning to break away from Antarctica and Madagascar breaking away from India. However, Arabia had not yet rifted away from Africa. North America was separated from Europe by rift basins, but sea floor spreading had not yet commenced between the two continents. (2025). 9781107105324, Cambridge University Press. ISBN 9781107105324
Climate
During the Maastrichtian, the global climate began to shift from the warm and humid climate of the Mesozoic to the colder and more arid climate of the Cenozoic. Variation of climate with latitude also became greater. This was likely caused by a major reorganization of oceanic circulation that took place at the boundary between the early and late Maastrichtian. This reorganization was triggered by the breach of tectonic barriers in the South Atlantic, permitting deep ocean water to begin circulating from the nascent North Atlantic to the south. This initiated thermohaline circulation similar to that of the modern oceans. At the same time, the Laramide orogeny drained the Western Interior Seaway of North America, further contributing to global cooling. Nonetheless, the latest Maastrichtian featured a sharp, pronounced warming, which was caused by the activity of the Deccan Traps.
Paleontology
Dinosaurs remained the dominant large terrestrial animals throughout the Maastrichtian, though mammals with internal organs similar to modern mammals were also present. Both ammonites and pterosaurs were in serious decline during the Maastrichtian.
Dinosaurs
Birds
Several archaic clades of birds, such as Enantiornithes, Ichthyornithes, and Hesperornithes, persisted to the latest Maastrichtian but became extinct during the Cretaceous-Paleogene extinction event.
Pterosaurs
Traditionally, pterosaur faunas of the Maastrichtian were assumed to be dominated by Azhdarchidae, with other pterosaur groups having become extinct earlier on. However, more recent findings suggest a fairly composite pterosaur diversity: at least six ("Nyctosaurus" lamegoi, a Mexican humerus, a Jordan humerus and several taxa from Morocco) Nyctosauridae date to this period, as do a few Pteranodontidae, and Navajodactylus, tentatively assigned to Azhdarchidae, lacks any synapomorphies of the group.Wilton, Mark P. (2013). Pterosaurs: Natural History, Evolution, Anatomy. Princeton University Press. .Barrett, P. M., Butler, R. J., Edwards, N. P., & Milner, A. R. (2008). Pterosaur distribution in time and space: an atlas. Zitteliana: 61–107.1. This seems to underscore a higher diversity of terminal Cretaceous pterosaurs than previously thought.Carroll, N. REASSIGNMENT OF MONTANAZHDARCHO MINOR AS A NON-AZHDARCHID MEMBER OF THE AZHDARCHOIDEA, SVP 2015.
Flora
The radiation of angiosperms (flowering plants) was well under way in the Maastrichtian. From 50% to 80% of all Genus of land plants were angiosperms, though gymnosperms and ferns still covered larger areas of the land surface.
Notes
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