Hierotopy (from , sacred + , place, space) is the creation of
sacred spaces viewed as a special form of human creativity and also a related academic field where specific examples of such creativity are studied. The concept and the term were developed in 2002 by
art-historian and
Byzantinism Alexei Lidov.
[A. Lidov. "Hierotopy. The creation of sacred spaces as a form of creativity and subject of cultural history" in Hierotopy. Creation of Sacred Spaces in Byzantium and Medieval Russia, ed. A.Lidov, Moscow: Progress-Tradition, 2006, pp. 32-58] Hierotopy accounts for the ways in which a vast array of media (e.g. religious
,
ritual,
song,
incense,
light) are used to organize sacred spaces. As an academic field, it spans the disciplines of
art history,
archeology, cultural anthropology,
ethnology and religious studies, but it possesses an object of study and a methodology of its own. It differs from the phenomenology of the sacred (which has been studied by
Mircea Eliade,
Rudolf Otto and
Pavel Florensky) insofar as it focuses on historical examples of hierotopic projects, that is, projects establishing a medium of communication between the
mundane and the
sacred. Though related with religious
mysticism, hierotopy deals first and foremost with forms of conscious, creative activity.
According to the hierotopic approach, and other sacred artifacts are viewed not as isolated objects, but as components of larger hierotopic projects. Though such artifacts often play a prominent role in hierotopic studies, it is these projects themselves – including both their conceptual and artistic aspects, as well as the historical developments leading to their formation – that are the primary focus of study. The role played by the creators of sacred spaces is also of chief importance, and could be compared with that of an artist. The creative element at work here resembles the work of contemporary film directors, for both involve the coordinated effort of various artists and specialists in shaping a single, comprehensive vision.[A. Lidov. "The Creator of Sacred Space as a Phenomenon of Byzantine Culture" in L’artista a Bisanzio e nel mondo cristiano-orientale, ed. Michele Bacci, Pisa, 2003, pp.135-176] One can consider as hierotopic examples Solomon's construction of the First Temple,[Sh. Tsuji. "Creating an Iconic Space. The Transformation of Narrative Landscape" in Spatial icons. Performativity in Byzantium and Medieval Russia, Moscow: Indrik, 2011, pp. 627-642] architectural compounds[G. Zelenskaya. "New Jerusalem near Moscow. Aspects of the Conception and New Discoveries" in: New Jerusalems. Hierotopy and iconography of sacred spaces, Moscow: Indrik, 2009, pp. 745-773] and even cities[E. Kirichenko. "The Church and the City: on the Symbolic and Structural Unity of the Russian Sacred Space" in Hierotopy. Comparative studies of sacred spaces, Moscow: Indrik, 2009, pp. 292-322] and countries[V. Petrukhin. "Hierotopy of the Russian Land and the Primary Chronicle" in Hierotopy. Creation of Sacred Spaces in Byzantium and Medieval Russia, Moscow, 2006, pp. 480-490] have become products of hierotopic creativity.
The topics of hierotopic study cover a broad span of interests and range, for example, from the role played by light in church architecture[A. Godovanets. "The Icon of Light in the Architectural Space of Hagia Sophia" in Spatial icons. Performativity in Byzantium and Medieval Russia, ed. A. Lidov, Moscow: Indrik, 2011, pp. 119-142] to the study of religious ceremonies, feasts[L. Beliaev. "The Hierotopy of the Orthodox Feast: on the National Traditions in the Making of Sacred Spaces" in: Hierotopy. Comparative studies of sacred spaces, ed. A. Lidov, Moscow: Indrik, 2009, pp. 270-291] and folk customs.[A. Moroz. "Sacred and Horrible Places. Creation of Sacred Spaces in Traditional Culture" in: Hierotopy. Comparative studies of sacred spaces, ed. A. Lidov, Moscow: Indrik, 2009, pp. 259-269] The comparison of hierotopic models at work in different cultures is another focus of interest.[N. Isar. "Vision and Performance. A Hierotopic Approach to Contemporary Art", in Hierotopy. Comparative studies of sacred spaces, ed. A. Lidov, Moscow: Indrik, 2009, pp. 341-375][M. Chegodaev. "The Hierotopy of the Ancient Egyptian Sarcophagus" in Hierotopy. Comparative studies of sacred spaces, ed. A. Lidov, Moscow: Indrik, 2009, pp. 18-37]
Six international symposium (2004, 2006, 2009, 2011, 2014, 2017) have been organized on hierotopic subjects.
Hierotopy and Pilgrimage Culture
Pilgrimage sites often represent the physical embodiment of hierotopic creativity, where ritual processions, sacred routes, and relic veneration converge to produce a sacred atmosphere. The Camino de Santiago in
Spain, the
Kumbh Mela in
India, and the
Hajj in
Islam are monumental examples of this phenomenon. These events transform entire landscapes into sacred terrains through spatial organization, temporary structures, and collective memory.
Spatial Icons
The concept of the
spatial icon plays a central role in hierotopy and is used to describe the perception of sacred spaces. Spatial icons are understood to play a mediating role between the
mundane and the
sacred. They are mediatory images that are evoked, for example, in the space of a
temple or
sanctuary.
[A. Lidov. "Hierotopy: Spatial icons and Image-Paradigms in Byzantine Culture", Moscow: Theoria, 2009, Ch. 2. Spatial Icons. The miraculous performance with the Hodegetria of Constantinople. pp. 39-70, 311-316] Hierotopic creativity is a sort of art, which can be described as the creation of spatial icons. This concept applies to the way in which the perception of architecture, light, image, ritual practice, as well as various other components forming sacred spaces, is unified into a single vision. It is also used in the study both of "sacred landscapes", such as the New Jerusalem Monastery near
Moscow, as well as of various ritual practices creating iconic medium, such as the
Donkey walk in
medieval Moscow.
[M. Flier. "The Image of the Tsar in the Muscovite Palm Sunday Ritual" in Spatial icons. Performativity in Byzantium and Medieval Russia, ed. A. Lidov, Moscow: Indrik, 2011, pp.533-562] Spatial icons are essentially dynamic and performative in nature, such that the formal boundary between 'image' and 'beholder' no longer pertains. Typically, the beholders of spatial icons are actively involved in some way and become, to a certain extent, co-creators of the icons.
[A. Lidov. "The Byzantine World and Performative Spaces" in Spatial icons. Performativity in Byzantium and Medieval Russia, ed. A. Lidov, Moscow: Indrik, 2011, pp. 17-26.]
Digital and Virtual Spaces
The rise of digital technology has introduced a new dimension to hierotopy: the creation of sacred experiences in virtual environments. Online prayer rooms, 3D reconstructions of temples, and immersive VR rituals allow participants to engage in transcendent experiences beyond physical boundaries. These digital spaces are being studied as “cyber-hierotopy,” a term some scholars are beginning to use to describe sacred digital creativity.
Transfer of Sacred Spaces
The transfer of sacred spaces is an important form of hierotopic creativity. While an original sacred space often appears as the result of a
theophany, such as a divine visitation or omen, this primary sacred space is then consciously reproduced in
sanctuary or
as a spatial icon. For example, the construction of the
First Temple, as recounted in the
Old Testament, can be viewed as the reproduction of the sacred space of the
Tabernacle. Similarly, in the design and construction of many Christian churches, the First Temple itself has been taken as a hierotopic prototype. Multiple "New Jerusalems" (reproductions of the Holy City of
Jerusalem), aimed to establish a link to the space of the
Holy Land, are common both to the Eastern and Western branches of the
Christianity tradition.
[A. Lidov. "New Jerusalems. Transferring of the Holy Land as Generative Matrix of Christian Culture" in New Jerusalems. Hierotopy and iconography of sacred spaces, ed. A. Lidov, Moscow: Indrik, 2009, pp. 8-10.]
Image-paradigms
The perception of sacred spaces has been analyzed by Lidov in terms of
image-paradigms.
[A. Lidov. "Image-paradigms as a category of visual culture. Hierotopic approach to the art history", Russian Journal of Art History(Iskusstvoznanie), 2011, No 3-4, pp.109-122][A. Lidov. "Image-Paradigms as a Notion of Mediterranean Visual Culture: a Hierotopic Approach to Art History" in Crossing Cultures. Papers of the International Congress of Art History. CIHA-2008, Melbourne, 2009, pp.177-183] According to his conception, an image-paradigm is a guiding image-vision that is created with the help of various media and that is aimed at evoking the same image in the mind of beholders of a sacred space. An image-paradigm, which is essentially different from an illustrative picture or representation, is a means of communication between the creators of sacred spaces and their beholders. It constitutes a kernel of meaning that gives form to an entire hierotopic project. As an example, the image of the Heavenly Jerusalem, which was present in
Middle Ages churches without being directly represented, is one of the most significant image-paradigms in the Christian tradition.
[A. Lidov. "Hierotopy: Spatial icons and Image-Paradigms in Byzantine Culture", Moscow: Theoria, 2009. Ch. 10, Image-Paradigms as a New Notion of Visual Culture, pp. 293-305, 335-337.][H. L. Kessler. "Seeing Medieval Art", Broadview Press, 2004, ch.5, Church, pp. 109-110]
Soundscapes
Sacred sound—chants, bells, hymns, or silence—forms an essential medium in hierotopic creativity. The acoustics of a space can be designed to amplify a spiritual experience, as seen in
Byzantine chant or the echoing silence of
Zen temple. Hierotopy considers how sound organizes sacred space, not merely as background, but as an active component of the spatial icon.
Political Power
Throughout history, rulers have used hierotopy to legitimize authority by building sacred spaces that merge divine sanction with political rule. The
Pharaoh, the Holy Roman Emperors, and Indian kings of the
Gupta Empire utilized temples, shrines, and symbolic geography to equate their rule with divine will. These sacred-political projects show how space can mediate power.
Indigenous and Oral Traditions
Many Indigenous cultures have long practiced hierotopic creativity outside the bounds of architecture or written theology. In these traditions, storytelling, totems, seasonal rituals, and sacred natural landmarks serve as spatial icons. These forms of sacred spatial knowledge are often transmitted orally and through ritual performance, rather than visual art or text, challenging Western definitions of hierotopy.
[Lidov, Alexei. “Hierotopy. The Creation of Sacred Spaces as a Form of Creativity and Subject of Cultural History.” Hierotopy. The Creation of Sacred Spaces as a Form of Creativity and Subject of Cultural History. In the Book: Hierotopy. Creation of Sacred Spaces in Byzantium and Medieval Russia. Edited by A. Lidov. Published by “Progress-Tradition” in Moscow, 2006, p. 32-58. , 2006.]
Ritual Choreography
Hierotopy places considerable emphasis on the role of ritual movement and embodied action in the constitution of sacred space. Sacred environments are not solely defined by their material composition; they are also structured by ritualized behaviors that occur within them. The notion of “ritual choreography” refers to the organized, often repetitive movement of individuals or groups through space in accordance with liturgical, devotional, or ceremonial protocols. Examples include processions, circumambulations, prostrations, and other prescribed bodily practices that activate specific spatial zones and confer sacred significance upon them. These actions are not ancillary but are integral to the performative enactment of hierotopic space. In this respect, the human body functions as both an instrument and a medium of sacred creativity. The interplay between space, gesture, and temporality serves to continually renew and animate the sacred environment, making it responsive to communal memory, doctrinal meaning, and liturgical rhythm.
Beyond Architecture
While architecture remains an important component in the hierotopic construction of sacred space, the field extends its analysis beyond physical structures to include immaterial and ephemeral elements. These may involve auditory phenomena such as chanting or bell sounds, olfactory cues like incense, or atmospheric conditions produced by lighting and seasonal rituals. The sacred space is thus conceived not merely as a built environment, but as an orchestrated field of sensory and symbolic interaction. This broader conceptualization allows for the inclusion of non-traditional or non-permanent sacred sites, including natural landscapes, temporary installations, and digital environments. For example, sacred groves, desert shrines, or online spaces designed for prayer or meditation can all be subject to hierotopic analysis if they involve a deliberate configuration of elements intended to produce an experience of the sacred. By framing sacred space as a multi-layered and temporally dynamic construct, hierotopy offers a comprehensive methodology for understanding how religious meaning is spatially and sensorially mediated across cultures and epochs.
The Role of Sight
Light, as both a physical and symbolic element, plays a crucial role in the creation and perception of sacred space. The careful manipulation of light in religious settings is an essential aspect of hierotopic design, as it serves to transform the space into a more divine and transcendent environment. In many religious traditions, light is understood as a manifestation of the divine presence, illuminating both the physical space and the inner spirit of the worshipper. Light serves as a medium for both the representation and experience of the sacred, guiding the beholder’s attention and creating an atmosphere of awe and reverence.
One of the most prominent examples of the use of light in hierotopic spaces is found in the architecture of Christian churches, particularly in the design of Gothic cathedrals. The use of stained glass windows, for example, is a deliberate attempt to filter natural light, creating a mystical effect that connects the worshipper with the divine. The interplay between light and shadow within sacred space is often symbolic, representing the presence of God as well as the tension between the human and the divine.
Similarly, in the design of Buddhist temples, the manipulation of light is central to the creation of a space that encourages meditation and spiritual reflection. The soft, diffuse lighting within a Buddhist temple, combined with incense and ritual practices, creates an environment conducive to contemplation and inner transformation. In both Eastern and Western religious contexts, the use of light in sacred spaces emphasizes the idea of illumination—both literal and metaphorical—offering a visual experience of the divine.
Temporal Dimensions
Hierotopy also considers the temporal dimensions of sacred space, focusing on how the experience of time influences the sacred environment. The interplay between time and space is a critical component of hierotopic design, as sacred spaces are often experienced in a ritual or cyclical context. Religious rituals, festivals, and ceremonies follow specific temporal patterns, and the layout and design of sacred spaces must accommodate these time-based activities.
For example, in the Christian tradition, the architectural layout of churches often aligns with the liturgical calendar, with certain spaces designated for specific religious observances or seasons. Similarly, in Hindu and Buddhist traditions, temples are designed to facilitate seasonal and ritual cycles, with particular areas of the temple used for specific purposes at different times of the year. The idea of sacred time, represented through the cycles of worship, prayer, and pilgrimage, underscores the temporal nature of sacred spaces and the way in which the divine is encountered over time, rather than as a static, one-time event.
This temporal dimension is especially important in the context of pilgrimage, where the act of journeying through sacred landscapes or cities becomes a spiritual practice that takes place over an extended period. Pilgrims often experience a transformation of their relationship to sacred space as they move through it, with their journey unfolding in time and offering a deeper connection to the divine.
Further reading
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Hierotopy. Christian Sacred Spaces. Cambridge Dictionary of Christianity. Cambridge, 2010, pp. 512–515 (see bibliography in [2])
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Florin George Calian (ed.), Sacred Spaces in Motion, Review of Ecumenical Studies, 2021.
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A. Lidov (ed.), Hierotopy: The Creation of sacred spaces in Byzantium and medieval Russia, Moscow: Indrik, 2006 [4]
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A. Lidov (ed.), New Jerusalems: Hierotopy and iconography of sacred spaces, . Moscow: Indrik, 2009,910 pp. [5]
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A. Lidov, Hierotopy: Spatial Icons and Image-Paradigms in Byzantine Culture, Moscow: Theoria, 2009, 352 pp.
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Bissera V. Pentcheva, The Sensual Icon. Space, Ritual, and the Senses in Byzantium, Pennstate Press, 2009. abstract sample chapter
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Holy Water in the Hierotopy and Iconography of the Christian World. Moscow: Theoria, 2017, 760 pp.
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Icons of space. Advances in hierotopy. London&NY, 2021, 422 pp. (ed. J. Bogdanovich)
External links
