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A gift or present is an item given to someone (who is not already the owner) without the expectation of payment or anything in return. Although gift-giving might involve an expectation of reciprocity, a gift is intended to be free. In many countries, the act of mutually exchanging money, property, etc., may sustain social relationships and contribute to social cohesion. Economists have elaborated the economics of gift-giving into the notion of a gift economy. By extension, the term gift can refer to any item or act of service that makes the other happiness or less sad, especially as a favor, including forgiveness and kindness. Gifts are often presented on occasions such as and .
Archaeological evidence suggests that gift-giving existed among early hominins. Anthropologists believe that the exchange of items, such as tools, food, and ornamental objects, played a role in social bonding and the establishment of alliances among hunter-gatherer communities.Mauss, Marcel (1954). The Gift: Forms and Functions of Exchange in Archaic Societies. London: Cohen & West. For example, the Khoisan people of southern Africa practiced gift exchange as part of social interaction and conflict avoidance mechanisms.Barnard, Alan (2002). Hunter-Gatherers in History, Archaeology and Anthropology. Oxford: Berg. Over time, gift-giving evolved into a broader practice encompassing both ceremonial and personal exchanges.
In ancient Greece and Rome, gift-giving was integral to social and political life. The practice was governed by social norms and expectations, often involving reciprocal obligations. The Roman concept of donum (gift) extended to both personal and state affairs, including patron-client relationships, religious donations, and diplomatic exchanges.Finley, M.I. (1999). The Ancient Economy. University of California Press.
In Homeric epics such as the Iliad and the Odyssey, the giving of gifts, such as weapons, garments, and livestock, was portrayed as a mark of honor and friendship.Homer. The Iliad and The Odyssey. Various editions. Greek city-states also exchanged ceremonial gifts during festivals and religious observances.
In Ancient Greece, the institution of xenia (guest-friendship) involved ritualized gift exchanges between hosts and guests. These practices, frequently described in Homeric epics such as the Odyssey, served to strengthen social ties and demonstrate respect.Homer. The Odyssey, translated by Robert Fagles. Penguin Classics, 1996.
In the Roman Empire, elites gave munera (public gifts or services), including gladiatorial games and food distributions, as acts of civic generosity and to enhance political reputation.Hopkins, Keith. Conquerors and Slaves. Cambridge University Press, 1978.
In Ancient China, gift-giving was guided by the Confucian ideal of li (ritual propriety). Formal exchanges of gifts—such as jade, scrolls, or tea—were common among the aristocracy and scholars and symbolized respect and social hierarchy.Li, Chenyang. The Confucian Philosophy of Harmony. Routledge, 2013.
Many ancient religious traditions also incorporated gift-giving. In the Rigveda, patrons offered cattle, gold, and horses to priests as part of ritual sacrifices.Griffith, Ralph T.H. The Hymns of the Rigveda. Evinity Publishing Inc., 2009. In Christian tradition, the Biblical Magi's presentation of gold, frankincense, and myrrh to the infant Jesus is an early example of symbolic religious gift-giving, commemorated in modern Christmas customs.Matthew 2:11, Holy Bible.
In Islamic cultures, gift-giving ( hiba) was also significant, both as a religious act and as a practice in hospitality. The Qur'an and Hadith literature encourage believers to give generously to others, particularly the needy and travelers.Rahman, Fazlur (1980). Major Themes of the Qur'an. University of Chicago Press.
In the 760s, Bregowin (archbishop of Canterbury) gave a bone casket to Lul (the bishop of Mainz). This was the only known instance of gift-giving between 8th-century missionaries.
Donations to monasteries in medieval Europe peaked between the 9th and 12th centuries. Eventually, people began to explain this by claiming that monks or other holy people contributed disproportionately to a "treasure of merit".
By the Renaissance and early modern era, gift-giving in Europe expanded among the merchant and upper classes. The rise of personal letters and tokens, including jewelry and manuscripts, became popular among the literate elite. In royal courts, the exchange of luxury gifts was part of diplomatic protocol.Strong, Roy (1984). Art and Power: Renaissance Festivals 1450–1650. Boydell & Brewer.
In China, Confucian teachings emphasized the importance of li (ritual propriety), which included the appropriate giving and receiving of gifts. Elaborate ceremonies and strict etiquette governed imperial gift exchanges and family rituals.Ebrey, Patricia Buckley (2003). Women and the Family in Chinese History. Routledge.
In sixteenth and seventeenth century France, gift-giving was often patronage in disguise. This was hidden by terms like , , and . Sometimes actual gifts were given with patron-client letters. These often included money, hunting birds, food, and cloth, and occasionally messengers as well.
Holiday gift-giving became institutionalized with events such as Christmas, Valentine's Day, and Mother's Day. Influenced by Victorian customs and Christian traditions, Christmas became a major gift-exchange occasion, particularly in the United Kingdom and the United States.Restad, Penne L. (1995). Christmas in America: A History. Oxford University Press.
Gift-giving during Christmas celebrations in the U.S. began in the early 19th century, initially in the Mid-Atlantic region. This kind of celebration was Northern European and had its roots in Lutheran theology. During this era, gifts were usually small and handmade.
In the late 19th century, U.S. Christmas celebrations began to grow in scale, with more manufacturing of goods. As early as 1880, the country's businesspeople had begun taking advantage of the holiday to sell more.
In Japan, Valentine's Day gift giving was introduced by Morozoff Ltd. in 1936, and initially targeted foreigners living near Kobe. The holiday was then reintroduced in the 1950s, but was not popular. It only became popular in the 1970s, when it was framed as a time for women to give gifts to men. To fix the gender imbalance, White Day was introduced for the men to give back to women. The typical gift on Valentine's Day in Japan is giri choko ("obligation chocolate"). Typical gifts on White Day include chocolate, jewelry, and clothes.
Recent changes in gift-giving have been influenced by technology, consumer preferences, and cultural shifts. In the 20th and 21st centuries, globalized commerce, advertising, and cultural exchange have further diversified gift-giving practices. The expansion of e-commerce and digital platforms has introduced new forms of gifting, such as electronic gift cards and subscription services.Belk, Russell W. (2007). Consumer Culture Theory. Emerald Group Publishing. There is a growing preference for personalized, handmade, or digitally delivered gifts over traditional store-bought items. Customized gifts like hand-drawn Portrait and personalized books are increasingly popular, offering more emotional and cultural significance. E-commerce has played a key role in this transformation, with online platforms providing a convenient way to order personalized and virtual gifts.
The article from ScienceDaily discusses research by the University of Bath showing that personalized gifts create lasting emotional connections and boost self-esteem. The study found that recipients of personalized gifts, such as custom portraits, mugs or clothing, feel more cherished and are more likely to value and care for these items. ScienceDaily, "Personalized Gifts Foster Emotional Connections," December 2024 The emotional impact is enhanced when the thought and effort behind the personalization are communicated. Personalized gifts foster deeper relationships and contribute to sustainability. Various online platforms have contributed to this trend by offering personalized gifts like hand-drawn portraits and customized books. University gift shops, such as The Duck Store and The Harvard Shop, have also embraced this trend, offering customized items that reflect their institutions' traditions.
Additional gift types that reflect modern personalization trends include custom jewelry or accessories featuring engraved names, initials, or birthstones; personalized greeting cards or art prints; digital gifts such as NFTs or tailored online experiences like personalized video messages; handcrafted wellness products including soaps or candles with custom labels; and themed experience kits, for example, cooking kits with personalized recipes.
Due to the mismatch between givers' and recipients' gift preferences, a significant fraction of gifts are unwanted, or the giver pays more for the item than the recipient values it, resulting in a misallocation of economic resources known as a deadweight loss. Unwanted gifts are often "", donated to charity, or thrown away. A gift that actually imposes a burden on the recipient, either due to maintenance or storage or disposal costs, is known as a white elephant.
One means of reducing the mismatch between the buyer and receivers' tastes is advance coordination, often undertaken in the form of a wedding registry or Christmas list. Wedding registries in particular are often kept at a single store, which can designate the exact items to be purchased (resulting in matching housewares), and to coordinate purchases so the same gift is not purchased by different guests. One study found that wedding guests who departed from the registry typically did so because they wished to signal a closer relationship to the couple by personalizing a gift, and also found that as a result of not abiding by the recipients' preferences, their gifts were appreciated less often.
An estimated $3.4 billion was spent on unwanted Christmas gifts in the United States in 2017 and $10.1 billion in 2024 .The day after Christmas is typically the busiest day for returns in countries with large Christmas gift giving traditions. The total unredeemed value of gift cards purchased in the U.S. each year is estimated to be about a billion dollars.
In some cases, people know the preferences of recipients very well, and can give highly valued gifts. Some value in gift-giving comes from assisted preference discovery - people receiving gifts they did not know they would like, or which they did not know were available. Behavioral economists propose that the non-material value of gifts lies in strengthening relationships by signalling the giver was thoughtful, or spent time and effort on the gift.
In some countries, certain types of gifts above a certain monetary amount are subject to taxation. For the United States, see Gift tax in the United States.
In some contexts, gift giving can be construed as bribery. This tends to occur in situations where the gift is given with an implicit or explicit agreement between the giver of the gift and its receiver that some type of service will be rendered (often outside of normal legitimate methods) because of the gift. Some groups, such as government workers, may have strict rules concerning gift giving and receiving so as to avoid the appearance of impropriety.
Cross border monetary gifts are subject to taxation in both source and destination countries based on the treaty between the two countries.
In the Eastern Orthodox Church, the bread and wine that are consecrated during the Divine Liturgy are referred to as "the Gifts." They are first of all the gifts of the community (both individually and corporately) to God, and then, after the epiklesis, the Gifts of the Body and Blood of Christ to the Church.
Ritual can be seen as return gifts to a deity.
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