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The cochineal ( , ; Dactylopius coccus) is a scale insect in the suborder Sternorrhyncha, from which the natural dye carmine is derived. A primarily sessile parasitism native to tropical and subtropical South America through North America (Mexico and the Southwest United States), this insect lives on Cactus in the genus Opuntia, feeding on plant moisture and nutrients. The insects are found on the pads of prickly pear cacti, collected by brushing them off the plants, and dried.
The insect produces carminic acid that deters predation by other insects. Carminic acid, typically 17–24% of dried insects' weight, can be extracted from the body and eggs, then mixed with aluminium or calcium salts to make carmine dye, also known as cochineal. Today, carmine is primarily used as a Food coloring and in lipstick (Carmine or Carminic acid).
Carmine dye was used in the Americas for coloring fabrics and became an important Export in the 16th century during the colonial period. Production of cochineal is depicted in the Codex Osuna (1565). After synthetic pigments and dyes such as alizarin were invented in the late 19th century, use of natural-dye products gradually diminished. Fears over the safety of artificial food additives renewed the popularity of cochineal dyes, and the increased demand has made cultivation of the insect profitable again, with Peru being the largest producer, followed by Mexico, Chile, Argentina and the Canary Islands.
Other species in the genus Dactylopius can be used to produce "cochineal extract", and are extremely difficult to distinguish from D. coccus, even for expert taxonomists; the scientific term D. coccus and the vernacular "cochineal insect" are sometimes used, intentionally or casually, and possibly with misleading effect, to refer to other species.
The cochineal disperses in the first nymph stage, called the "crawler" stage. The juveniles move to a feeding spot and produce long wax filaments. Later, they move to the edge of the cactus pad, where the wind catches the wax filaments and carries the insects to a new host. These individuals establish feeding sites on the new host and produce a new generation of cochineals. Male nymphs feed on the cactus until they reach sexual maturity. At this time, they can no longer feed at all and live only long enough to fertilise the eggs. They are, therefore, seldom observed. In addition, females typically outnumber males due to environmental factors.
To produce dye from cochineals, the insects are collected when they are around 90 days old. Harvesting the insects is labour-intensive, as they must be individually knocked, brushed, or picked from the cacti and placed into bags. The insects are gathered by small groups of collectors who sell them to local processors or exporters.
In regions dependent on cochineal production, pest control measures are taken seriously. For small-scale cultivation, manual methods of control have proved to be the safest and most effective. For large-scale cultivation, advanced pest control methods have to be developed, including alternative bioinsecticides or traps with .
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A conflict of interest among communities led to closure of the cochineal business in Ethiopia, but the insect spread and became a pest. Cochineal infestation continued to expand after the cochineal business had ended. Control measures were unsuccessful and by 2014 about of cactus land had become infested with cochineal.Tesfay Belay Reda. 2014. Cactus Pear & Carmine Cochineal: introduction & use in Ethiopia. Lambert Academic Publishing.
Carminic acid is extracted from the female cochineal insects and is treated to produce carmine, which can yield shades of red such as crimson and scarlet. The dried body of the female insect is 14–26% carminic acid.
Workers collect the female cochineal insects from their host plants. The insects are killed by immersion in hot water or by exposure to sunlight, steam, or the heat of an oven. Each method produces a different color that results in the varied appearance of commercial cochineal. The insects must be dried to about 30% of their original body weight before they can be stored without decaying. It takes about 70,000 insects to make of cochineal dye.
The two principal forms of cochineal dye are cochineal extract, a coloring made from the raw dried and pulverised bodies of insects, and carmine, a more purified coloring made from the cochineal. To prepare carmine, the powdered insect bodies are boiled in ammonia or a sodium carbonate solution, the insoluble matter is removed by filtering, and alum is added to the clear salt solution of carminic acid to precipitate the red aluminium salt. Purity of color is ensured by the absence of iron. Stannous chloride, citric acid, borax, or gelatin may be added to regulate the formation of the precipitate. For shades of purple, lime is added to the alum.
The dye bonds best with animal fibers rather than plant fibers and was most effective for dyeing wool from and other Camelidae, rabbit fur, and feathers. It was also used on cottons and plant-based fabrics, to less effect. Some examples of early cloth have survived in extremely dry areas in Peru. In addition, the use of cochineal is literally illustrated in drawings on codices and maps. Production of cochineal dyes became well-developed under Nazca culture, and beautiful examples of woven cloth colored by cochineal remain from Moche culture and Wari culture.
Cochineal's importance is also indicated by its prominence in tribute lists such as the Matrícula de Tributos. Eleven cities conquered by Moctezuma II in the 15th century paid a yearly tribute of 2000 decorated cotton blankets and 40 bags of cochineal dye each.
Pigments are insoluble finely ground particles which are mixed with a liquid to make a paint. To be useful as a pigment, a substance should be insoluble in the vehicle with which it is mixed, in contrast to a dye which is soluble. The activity of carmines can vary widely depending on their preparation and composition: they tend to be unstable and can vary in solubility depending on pH.
Recipes for artists' use of crimson appear in many early painting and alchemical handbooks throughout the Middle Ages. Red were known to be particularly unstable as early as the 1400s. When cochineal lakes were introduced in Europe, artists soon found that they were not lightfastness. The paint turns brown and fades in sunlight, although it is somewhat more permanent if mixed with oil rather than water color. As a result, carmine's use as a pigment was discouraged: its primary use was as a dye rather than in paints.
During the colonial period, with the introduction of sheep to Latin America, the use of cochineal increased. It provided the most intense color and it set more firmly on garments compared to clothes made of materials of pre-Hispanic origin such as cotton or agave and yucca fibers. In general, cochineal is more successful on protein-based animal fibres (including silk) than plant-based material.
Once the European market discovered the qualities of this product ( grana fina), the demand for it increased dramatically.
Carmine became the region's second-most-valuable export next to silver. The dyestuff was used throughout Europe and was so highly prized, its price was regularly quoted on the London and Amsterdam Commodity Exchanges (with the latter one beginning to record it in 1589). By the 17th century cochineal was a commodity traded as far away as India.
The production and the use of luxury colors and textiles were regulated in countries such as Spain and Italy. Dyestuffs produced from the cochineal insect were used for dyeing the clothes of Monarch, nobility, and the clergy.. In 1454, Pope Paul II officially changed the color of the robes worn by Catholic cardinals from "Cardinal's purple" to vibrant red. By 1558, their red robes would have been created with American cochineal. By the 1600s, cochineal also gave the English "Redcoats" their distinctive officers' uniforms. Carmine became strong competition for other colorants such as Rose madder root, kermes, Polish cochineal, Armenian cochineal, brazilwood, and Tyrian purple. It became the most important insect dye used in the production of hand-woven oriental rugs, almost completely displacing lac. It was also used for , and tapestry.
Spanish influence also changed the way in which Aztecs used pigments, particularly in their manuscripts. The use of cochineal in manuscripts was replaced by Spanish dyes like minium and alizarin.
During the colonial period in Latin America, many indigenous communities produced cochineal under a type of contract known as Repartimiento de Mercancías. This was a type of "contract forwarding" agreement, in which a trader lent money to producers in advance, with a "call option" to buy the product once it was harvested. Communities with a history of cochineal production and export have been found to have lower poverty rates and higher female literacy, but also smaller indigenous populations.
However, the product has become commercially valuable again. One reason for the increasing interest in natural dyes is consumer concern over the possibility that some commercial synthetic red dyes and food colorings may be carcinogenic. Being natural is not a guarantee of safety, but studies show that cochineal is neither carcinogenic nor toxic. Cochineal does, however, have a slight potential to trigger an allergic reaction.
As of 2005, Peru produced 200 tons of cochineal dye per year and the Canary Islands produced 20 tons per year. Chile and Mexico also export cochineal. France is believed to be the world's largest importer, and Japan and Italy also import the insect. Much of these imports are processed and re-exported to other developed economies. As of 2005, the market price of cochineal was between US$50 and 80 per kilogram, while synthetic raw food dyes are available at prices as low as $10–20 per kilogram.
Natural carmine dye used in food and cosmetics can render the product unacceptable to vegetarian or vegan consumers. Many consider carmine-containing food forbidden ( haraam) because the dye is extracted from insects and all insects except the locust are haram in Islam. also avoid food containing this additive, though it is not treif, and some authorities allow its use because the insect is dried and reduced to powder.Pischei Teshuvah Yoreh Deah 87-20
Cochineal is one of the few water-soluble colorants to resist degradation with time. It is one of the most light- and heat-stable and oxidation-resistant of all the natural organic colorants and is even more stable than many synthetic food colors. The water-soluble form, cochineal extract, is used in a wide variety of beverages; the insoluble form, carmine, is used in a wide variety of products. They can be found in meat, , processed poultry products (meat products cannot be colored in the United States unless they are labeled as such), surimi, marination, alcoholic drinks, bakery products and toppings, , , icings, pie fillings, , preserves, gelatin desserts, juice beverages, varieties of cheddar cheese and other dairy products, , and sweets.
Carmine is considered safe enough for cosmetic use in the eye area. A significant proportion of the insoluble carmine pigment produced is used in the cosmetics industry for hair- and skin-care products, , face powders, cosmetics, and blushes. A bright red dye and the stain carmine used in microbiology is often made from the carmine extract, too. The pharmaceutical industry uses cochineal to color pills and .
Cochineal-colored wool and cotton continue to be important materials for Mexican folk art and crafts.Wood, W. W. (2008). Made in Mexico: Zapotec weavers and the global ethnic art market. Indiana University Press.. Some towns in the Mexico state of Oaxaca continue to follow traditional practices of producing and using cochineal when making handmade textiles.
In Guatemala, Heifer International has partnered with local women who wished to reintroduce traditional artisanal practices of cochineal production and use.
Because it has a complicated structure involving multiple chemical groups, it is very difficult to create a synthetic molecule for cochineal. In 1991, carminic acid was first synthesized in the laboratory by organic chemists. In 2018, researchers genetically engineered the fungus Aspergillus nidulans to produce carminic acid; the bacterium Escherichia coli was engineered to produce carminic acid in 2021.
(2025). 9781606063293, The Getty Research Institute. ISBN 9781606063293 The image of Moctezuma's death (seen to the right) uses both indigenous and Spanish pigments, and is therefore representative of the transition and influence between cultures.
Production elsewhere
In 1777, French botanist Nicolas-Joseph Thiéry de Menonville, presenting himself as a botanizing physician, smuggled the insects and pads of the Opuntia cactus to Saint Domingue. This particular collection failed to thrive and ultimately died out, leaving the Mexican monopoly intact. After the Mexican War of Independence in 1810–1821, the Mexican monopoly on cochineal came to an end. Large-scale production of cochineal emerged, especially in Guatemala and the Canary Islands; it was also cultivated in Spain and North Africa.
Competition from artificial dyes
The demand for cochineal fell sharply in the middle of the 19th century, with the appearance of artificial dyes such as alizarin. This caused a significant financial shock in Spain as a major industry almost ceased to exist. The delicate manual labour required for the breeding of the insect could not compete with the modern methods of the new industry, and even less so with the lowering of production costs. The " tuna blood" dye (from the Mexican name for the Opuntia fruit) stopped being used and trade in cochineal almost totally disappeared in the course of the 20th century. For a time, the breeding of cochineal was done mainly for the purposes of maintaining the tradition rather than to satisfy any sort of demand.
Modern uses
Cochineal continues to be used as a fabric dye, a cosmetics dye and as a food coloring. It is also used in histology as a preparatory stain for the examination of tissues and carbohydrates.
Risks and labeling
In spite of the widespread use of carmine-based dyes in food and cosmetic products, a small number of people have been found to experience occupational asthma, food allergy and cosmetic allergies (such as allergic rhinitis and cheilitis), IgE-mediated respiratory hypersensitivity, and in rare cases anaphylactic shock. In 2009, the FDA ruled that labels of cosmetics and food that include cochineal extract must include that information on their labels (under the name "cochineal extract" or "carmine").FDA. Guidance for Industry: Cochineal Extract and Carmine: Declaration by Name on the Label of All Foods and Cosmetic Products That Contain These Color Additives; Small Entity Compliance Guide . Silver Spring, MD:U.S. Food & Drug Administration (updated June 7, 2011). accessed. In 2006, the FDA stated it found no evidence of a "significant hazard" to the general population. In the EU, authorities list carmine as additive E120 in the E number. An artificial, non-allergenic cochineal dye is labeled E124.
Explanatory notes
See also
Further reading
(1998). 9780821225486, Little, Brown and Company. ISBN 9780821225486
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