Chrysanthemums ( ), sometimes abbreviated to ' mums' or ' chrysanths',
Description
The
genus Chrysanthemum consists of
perennial herbaceous , sometimes
. The
leaves are alternate, divided into leaflets and may be
pinnatisect, lobed, or
serrate (toothed) but rarely entire; they are connected to stalks with
indumentum bases.
The compound inflorescence is an array of several pseudanthium, or sometimes a solitary head. The head has a base covered in layers of bract. The simple row of ray florets is white, yellow, or red. The disc florets are yellow. Pollen grains are approximately 34 microns.
The fruit is a ribbed achene.[ Chrysanthemum. Flora of China. eFloras.]
Etymology
The name "chrysanthemum" is derived from the
chrysos (gold) and
anthemon (flower).
Taxonomy
The genus
Chrysanthemum was first formally described by
Carl Linnaeus in 1753, with 14
species, and hence bears his name (
L.) as the botanical authority. The genus once included more species, but was split several decades ago into several genera, putting the economically important florist's chrysanthemums in the genus
Dendranthema. The naming of these genera has been contentious, but a ruling of the International Botanical Congress in 1999 changed the
type species of the genus to
Chrysanthemum indicum, restoring the florist's chrysanthemums to the genus
Chrysanthemum.
Genera now separated from Chrysanthemum include Argyranthemum, Glebionis, Leucanthemopsis, Leucanthemum, Rhodanthemum, and Tanacetum.
Species
,
Plants of the World Online accepted the following species:
-
Chrysanthemum × aphrodite Kitam.
-
Chrysanthemum arcticum L.
-
Chrysanthemum argyrophyllum Ling
-
Chrysanthemum arisanense Hayata
-
Chrysanthemum bizarre C.Z.Shen
-
Chrysanthemum chalchingolicum Grubov
-
Chrysanthemum chanetii H.Lév.
-
Chrysanthemum crassum (Kitam.) Kitam.
-
Chrysanthemum × cuneifolium Kitam.
-
Chrysanthemum dabieshanense Z.X.Fu, A.G.Zhen & Y.P.Ma
-
Chrysanthemum dichrum (C.Shih) H.Ohashi & Yonek.
-
Chrysanthemum foliaceum (G.F.Peng, C.Shih & S.Q.Zhang) J.M.Wang & Y.T.Hou
-
Chrysanthemum glabriusculum (W.W.Sm.) Hand.-Mazz.
-
Chrysanthemum horaimontanum Masam.
-
Chrysanthemum hypargyreum Diels
-
Chrysanthemum indicum L.
-
Chrysanthemum integrifolium Richardson
-
Chrysanthemum japonense (Makino) Nakai
-
Chrysanthemum lavandulifolium Makino
-
Chrysanthemum × leucanthum (Makino) Makino
-
Chrysanthemum longibracteatum (C.Shih, G.F.Peng & S.Y.Jin) J.M.Wang & Y.T.Hou
-
Chrysanthemum makinoi Matsum. & Nakai
-
Chrysanthemum maximoviczii Kom.
-
Chrysanthemum × miyatojimense Kitam.
-
Chrysanthemum × morifolium (Ramat.) Hemsl.
-
Chrysanthemum morii Hayata
-
Chrysanthemum naktongense Nakai
-
Chrysanthemum nankingense Hand.-Mazz.
-
Chrysanthemum neo-oreastrum C.C.Chang
-
Chrysanthemum ogawae Kitam.
-
Chrysanthemum okiense Kitam.
-
Chrysanthemum oreastrum Hance
-
Chrysanthemum ornatum Hemsl.
-
Chrysanthemum parvifolium C.C.Chang
-
Chrysanthemum potentilloides Hand.-Mazz.
-
Chrysanthemum rhombifolium (Y.Ling & C.Shih) H.Ohashi & Yonek.
-
Chrysanthemum × shimotomaii Makino
-
Chrysanthemum sinuatum Ledeb.
-
Chrysanthemum vestitum (Hemsl.) Kitam.
-
Chrysanthemum yantaiense M.Sun & J.T.Chen
-
Chrysanthemum yoshinaganthum Makino
-
Chrysanthemum zawadzkii Herbich
-
Chrysanthemum zhuozishanense L.Q.Zhao & Jie Yang
Former species include:
-
Chrysanthemum carinatum = Ismelia
-
Chrysanthemum cinerariifolium = Tanacetum cinerariifolium
-
Chrysanthemum coccineum = Tanacetum coccineum
-
Chrysanthemum coronarium = Glebionis coronaria
-
Chrysanthemum frutescens = Argyranthemum frutescens
-
Chrysanthemum maximum = Leucanthemum maximum
-
Chrysanthemum pacificum = Ajania pacifica
-
Chrysanthemum segetum = Glebionis segetum
Ecology
Chrysanthemums start blooming in early autumn. They are a flower associated with the month of November.
Cultivation
Chrysanthemums (p=Júhuā) were first cultivated in China as a flowering
herb as far back as the 15th century
BCE.
Over 500 cultivars had been recorded by 1630.
By 2014, it was estimated that there were over 20,000 cultivars in the world and about 7,000 cultivars in China.
[The Scientific World Journal Volume 2014, Article ID 625658] The plant is renowned as one of the
Four Gentlemen (四君子) in
Chinese art and East Asian Art. The plant is particularly significant during the Double Ninth Festival.
Chrysanthemum cultivation in Japan began during the Nara period and (early 8th to late 12th centuries) and gained popularity in the Edo period (early 17th to late 19th century). Many flower shapes, colours, and varieties were created. The way the flowers were grown and shaped also developed, and chrysanthemum culture flourished. Various cultivars of chrysanthemums created in the Edo period were characterized by a remarkable variety of flower shapes. They were exported to China from the end of the Edo period, changing the way Chinese chrysanthemum cultivars were grown and their popularity.[ History of chrysanthemums. Odawara][
]
target="_blank" rel="nofollow"> Chrysanthemum exhibition Hiroshima Botanical Garden In addition, from the Meiji period (late 19th to early 20th century), many cultivars with flowers over in diameter, called the Ogiku (lit., great chrysanthemum) style, were created, which influenced the subsequent trend of chrysanthemums.
Chrysanthemums entered American horticulture in 1798 when Colonel John Stevens imported a cultivar known as Dark Purple from England. The introduction was part of an effort to grow attractions within Elysian Fields in Hoboken, New Jersey.[The New York Botanical Garden, Curtis' Botanical Magazine, Volume X Bronx, New York: The New York Botanical Garden, 1797]
Classification
For horticultural purposes, all
Chrysanthemum cultivars are split into 13 divisions based upon flower form, a classification developed by the National Chrysanthemum Society (USA).
Uses
Ornamental uses
Modern cultivated chrysanthemums are usually brighter and more striking than their wild relatives. Many horticultural specimens have been bred to bear many rows of ray florets in a great variety of colors. The flower heads occur in various forms, and can be daisy-like or decorative, like
pom-pom or
. This genus contains many hybrids and thousands of
developed for horticultural purposes. In addition to the traditional yellow, other colors are available, such as white, purple, and red. The most important hybrid is
Chrysanthemum ×
morifolium (syn.
C. ×
grandiflorum), derived primarily from
C. indicum, but also involving other species.
Over 140 cultivars of chrysanthemum have gained the Royal Horticultural Society's Award of Garden Merit (confirmed 2017).
In Japan, a form of chrysanthemum bonsai was developed over the centuries. The cultivated flower has a lifespan of about 5 years and can be kept in miniature size. A bonsai-like effect can also be created by using pieces of dead wood with the flower growing over the back along the wood, to give the illusion from the front that the a miniature tree blooms in chrysanthemums.
Culinary uses
Yellow or white chrysanthemum flowers of the species
C. morifolium are boiled to make a tea in some parts of East Asia. The resulting beverage is known simply as chrysanthemum tea ( ,
pinyin:
júhuā chá, in Chinese). In Korea, a rice wine flavored with chrysanthemum flowers is called
gukhwaju ().
Chrysanthemum leaves are steamed or boiled and used as greens, especially in Chinese cuisine. The flowers may be added to dishes such as mixian in broth or thick snakemeat soup (蛇羹) to enhance the aroma. They are commonly used in hot pot and stir fries. In Japanese cuisine, small chrysanthemums are used as garnish for sashimi.
Insecticidal uses
Pyrethrum (
Chrysanthemum cinerariaefolium or
Tanacetum cinerariaefolium) is economically important as a natural source of
insecticide. The flowers are pulverized, and the active components, called
, which occur in the
, are extracted and sold in the form of an
oleoresin. This is applied as a suspension in water or oil, or as a powder. Pyrethrins attack the nervous systems of all
, and inhibit female
from biting. In sublethal doses, they have an
insect repellent effect. They are harmful to
fish, but are far less toxic to
and
than many synthetic insecticides. They are not persistent, being
biodegradation, and also decompose easily on exposure to light.
such as
permethrin are synthetic insecticides based on natural pyrethrum. Despite this, chrysanthemum leaves are still a major host for destructive pests, such as
Agromyzidae including
L. trifolii.
Persian powder is an example of industrial product of chrysanthemum insecticide.
Environmental uses
Chrysanthemum plants have been shown to reduce indoor air pollution by the NASA Clean Air Study.
In culture
In some European countries (e.g., France,
Belgium, Italy, Spain,
Poland,
Hungary,
Croatia), incurve chrysanthemums symbolize
death and are used only for funerals or on graves, while other types carry no such symbolism; similarly, in China, Japan, and
Korea of East Asia, white chrysanthemums symbolize adversity, lamentation, and/or grief. In some other countries, they represent honesty.
[ Flower Meaning. Retrieved 22 September 2007. ] In the United States, the flower is usually regarded as positive and cheerful,
with New Orleans as a notable exception.
In the Victorian era language of flowers, the chrysanthemum had several meanings. The Chinese chrysanthemum meant cheerfulness, whereas the red chrysanthemum stood for "I Love", while the yellow chrysanthemum symbolized slighted love.
East Asia
China
-
The chrysanthemum is the city flower of Beijing and Kaifeng. The tradition of cultivating different varieties of chrysanthemums stretches back 1600 years, and the scale reached a phenomenal level during the Song dynasty until its loss to the Jürchens in 1126. The city has held the Kaifeng Chrysanthemum Cultural Festival since 1983 (renamed China Kaifeng Chrysanthemum Cultural Festival in 1994). The event is the largest chrysanthemum festival in China; it has been a yearly feature since, taking place between 18 October and 18 November every year.
-
The chrysanthemum is one of the "Four Gentlemen" (四君子) of China (the others being the Prunus mume, the orchid, and bamboo). The chrysanthemum is said to have been favored by Tao Yuanming, an influential Chinese poet, and is symbolic of nobility. It is also one of the four symbolic seasonal flowers.
-
A chrysanthemum festival is held each year in Tongxiang, near Hangzhou, China.
-
Chrysanthemums are the topic in hundreds of poems of China.
-
The "golden flower" referred to in the 2006 movie Curse of the Golden Flower is a chrysanthemum.
-
"Chrysanthemum Gate" (jú huā mén 菊花门), often abbreviated as Chrysanthemum (菊花), is taboo slang meaning "anus" (with sexual connotations).
-
An ancient Chinese city (Xiaolan Town of Zhongshan City) was named Ju-Xian, meaning "chrysanthemum city".
-
The plant is particularly significant during the Chinese Double Ninth Festival.
-
In Chinese culture, the chrysanthemum is a symbol of autumn and the flower of the ninth moon. People even drank chrysanthemum wine on the ninth day of the ninth lunar month to prolong their lives during the Han dynasty. It is a symbol of longevity because of its health-giving properties.
["Chinese Symbols." The British Museum, 2008. Accessed 4 October 2017.
]
Because of all of this, the flower was often worn on funeral attire.
-
Pharmacopoeia of the People's Republic of China listed two kinds of chrysanthemum for medical use, Yejuhua and Juhua. Historically Yejuhua is said to treat carbuncle, furuncle, conjunctivitis, headache, and vertigo. Juhua is said to treat cold, headache, vertigo, and conjunctivitis.
Japan
Chrysanthemums first arrived in Japan by way of China in the 5th century. The chrysanthemum has been used as a theme of
waka (Japanese traditional poetry) since around the 10th century in the
Heian period, and
Kokin Wakashū is the most famous of them. In the 12th century, during the
Kamakura period, when the retired
Emperor Go-Toba adopted it as the mon (family crest) of the Imperial family, it became a flower that symbolized autumn in Japan. During the
Edo period from the 17th century to the 19th century, due to the development of economy and culture, the cultivation of chrysanthemums,
cherry blossoms,
Japanese iris,
morning glory, etc. became popular, many cultivars were created and many chrysanthemum exhibitions were held. From the
Meiji period in the latter half of the 19th century, due to the growing importance of the chrysanthemum, which symbolized the Imperial family, the creation of
ogiku style cultivars with a diameter of 20 cm or more became popular.
[ LOVE OF FLOWERS. "Sketches of Japanese manners and customs" Jacob Mortimer Wier Silver, 1867]
In the present day, each autumn there are chrysanthemum exhibitions at the Shinjuku Gyo-en, Meiji Shrine and Yasukuni Shrine in Tokyo. The Yasukuni Shrine, formerly a state-endowed shrine (官国弊社, kankokuheisha) has adopted the chrysanthemum crest.
Chrysanthemum growing is still practised actively as a hobby by many Japanese people who enter prize plants in contests.
-
In Japan, the chrysanthemum is a symbol of the Emperor and the Imperial family. In particular, a "chrysanthemum crest" (菊花紋章, kikukamonshō or kikkamonshō), i.e. a mon of chrysanthemum blossom design, indicates a link to the Emperor; there are more than 150 patterns of this design. Notable uses of and reference to the Imperial chrysanthemum include:
-
The imperial crest of Japan is used by members of the Japanese imperial family. In 1869, a two-layered, 16-petal design was designated as the symbol of the emperor. Princes used a simpler, single-layer pattern.
-
The Chrysanthemum Throne is the name given to the position of Japanese Emperor and the throne.
-
The Supreme Order of the Chrysanthemum is a Japanese honor awarded by the emperor on the advice of the Japanese government.
-
In Imperial Japan, small arms were required to be stamped with the imperial chrysanthemum, as they were considered the personal property of the emperor.
-
The Nagoya Castle Chrysanthemum Competition started after the end of the Pacific War. The event at the castle has become a tradition for the city. With three categories, it is one of the largest events of its kind in the region by both scale and content. The first category is the exhibition of cultivated flowers. The second category is for bonsai flowers, which are combined with dead pieces of wood to give the illusion of miniature trees. The third category is the creation of miniature landscapes.
Mikasa]]
Ewer with Chrysanthemums and Paulownia Crests in Alternating Fields. Early 17th century, Azuchi–Momoyama period.]]
Korea
flower is found extensively in inlaid
Goryeo ware and were reproduced in stamp form in
Buncheong. Several twentieth century potters, especially Kim Se-yong, created double-wall wares featuring each individual petal painted in white clay against a
celadon background. A vase produced using this technique and presented in 1999 to
Elizabeth II can be found in the
Royal Collection.
Laying a wreath of white chrysanthemums to mourn at funerals has been common since the early 20th century. Before the 20th century, white clothing was traditionally worn in funeral settings. However, the introduction of Western culture made black the prevalent color. White chrysanthemums were instead used to preserve the tradition of using white to mourn at funerals.
Korea has a number of flower shows that exhibit the chrysanthemum, such as the Masan Gagopa Chrysanthemum Festival.
File:Funeral parlor for the Park Won-soon, Mayor of Seoul.jpg|White chrysanthemums at a Korean funeral parlor
File:Double-openwork celadon moon jar with chrysanthemums.jpg|celadon moon jar with chrysanthemums, Kim Se-yong
File:청자 상감 국화 넝쿨 무늬 완.jpg|Goryeo ware bowl with chrysanthemum inscription. early 11th century, Goryeo.
File:Celadon inlaid peony and chrysanthemum pattern melon-shaped bottle.jpg|Celadon inlaid peony and chrysanthemum pattern melon-shaped bottle, Goryeo dynasty
File:Chrysanthemums in Masan port during gagopa chrysanthemum festival.jpg|Masan Gagopa Chrysanthemum Festival
West Asia
Iran
In Iran, chrysanthemums are associated with the Zoroastrian spiritual being Ashi Vanghuhi (lit. 'good blessings, rewards'), a female Yazad (angel) presiding over blessings.
Oceania
Australia
In Australia, on Mother's Day, which falls in May when the flower is in season, people traditionally wear a white chrysanthemum, or a similar white flower to honour their mothers. Chrysanthemums are often given as Mother's Day presents.
North America
United States
-
On 5 and 6 November 1883, in Philadelphia, the Pennsylvania Horticultural Society (PHS), at the request of the Florists and Growers Society, held its first Chrysanthemum Show in Horticultural Hall. This would be the first of several chrysanthemum events presented by PHS to the public.
-
The founding of the chrysanthemum industry dates back to 1884, when the Enomoto brothers of Redwood City, California, grew the first chrysanthemums cultivated in America.
[La Peninsula, xlii (1)]
-
In 1913, Sadakasu Enomoto (of San Mateo County) astounded the flower world by successfully shipping a carload of Turner chrysanthemums to New Orleans for the All Saints Day Celebration.
-
The chrysanthemum was recognized as the official flower of the city of Chicago by Mayor Richard J. Daley in 1966.
[ Chrysanthemum: The Official Flower of Chicago. Chicago Public Library.]
-
The chrysanthemum is the official flower of the city of Salinas, California.
[ City of Salinas Permit Center. City of Salinas Community Development Department.]
-
The chrysanthemum is the official flower of several fraternities and sororities, including Chi Phi, Phi Kappa Sigma, Phi Mu Alpha Sinfonia,
Europe
Italy
Italian composer
Giacomo Puccini wrote
Crisantemi (1890), a movement for string quartet, in memory of his friend Amedeo di Savoia Duca d'Aosta. In
Italy (and other European countries) the chrysanthemum is the flower that people traditionally bring to their deceased loved ones at the
cemetery and is generally associated with mourning. A probable reason for this is the fact that the plant flowers between the end of October and the beginning of November, coinciding with the Day of the Dead (2 November).
Poland
Chrysanthemums are placed on graves to honor the dead during All Saints' Day and All Souls' Day in
Poland.
United Kingdom
The UK National Collection of hardy chrysanthemums is at Hill Close Gardens near
Warwick.
== Gallery ==
See also
Bibliography
- Books
-
-
-
, see also Species Plantarum
- Articles
- Websites
External links
