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Bracken ( Pteridium) is a genus of large, coarse in the family Dennstaedtiaceae. Ferns (Pteridophyta) are that undergo alternation of generations, having both large plants that produce spores and small plants that produce gamete (eggs and sperm) in its life cycle. Brackens are noted for their large, highly divided leaves. They are found on all continents except Antarctica and in all environments except deserts, though their typical habitat is moorland. The genus probably has the widest distribution of any fern in the world.
The word bracken is of Old Norse origin, related to Swedish bräken and Danish bregne, both meaning fern. In the past, the genus was commonly treated as having only one species, Pteridium aquilinum, but the recent trend is to subdivide it into about ten species.
Like other ferns, brackens do not have seeds or fruit, but reproduce by . The immature fronds, known as , are sometimes eaten, although some are thought to be carcinogenic.
Fern spores are contained in structures found on the underside of the leaf called Sorus. The sori of bracken are located in a line next to the leaf-edge and are distinctly different from that in most other ferns, where the sori are circular and occur towards the center of the leaf.
Bracken is a characteristic moorland plant in Ireland which over the last decades has increasingly out-competed characteristic ground-cover plants such as , cowberry, bilberry, and Ericaceae, and now covers a considerable part of upland moorland. Once valued and gathered for use in animal bedding, tanning, soap and glass making, and as a fertiliser, bracken is now seen as a pernicious, invasive, and opportunistic plant, taking over from the plants traditionally associated with open moorland and reducing easy access by humans. It is toxic to cattle, dogs, sheep, pigs, and horses, and is also linked to cancers in humans. It can harbour high levels of sheep ticks, which can pass on Lyme disease. Grazing provided some control by stock trampling, but this has almost ceased since the 2001 foot-and-mouth disease outbreak reduced commercial livestock production. Global climatic changes have also suited bracken well and contributed to its rapid increase in land coverage.
Bracken is a well-adapted pioneer plant which can colonise land quickly, with the potential to extend its area by as much as 1%–3% per year. This ability to expand rapidly at the expense of other plants and wildlife can cause major problems for land users and managers. It colonises ground with an open vegetation structure, but is slow to colonise healthy, well managed heather stands.
Bracken presents a threat to biodiversity. Many plant species occur only on upland moorland, tied to unique features in the habitat. The loss and degradation of such areas due to the dominance of bracken has caused many species to become rare and isolated.
Bracken substitutes the characteristics of a woodland canopy, and is important for giving shade to European plants such as common bluebell and Anemone nemorosa where the woodland does not exist. These plants are intolerant to stock trampling. Dead bracken provides a warm microclimate for development of the immature stages. Climbing corydalis, Gladiolus, and chickweed wintergreen also seem to benefit from the conditions found under bracken stands.
The high humidity in the stands helps mosses survive underneath, including Campylopus flexuosus, Hypnum cupressiforme, Polytrichum commune, Pseudoscelopodium purum and Rhytidiadelphus squarrosus.
In Korea, bracken (sometimes referred to as 'fernbrake' in Korean recipes) is known as gosari (고사리), and is a typical ingredient in bibimbap, a popular mixed rice dish. Stir-fried bracken ( gosari namul) is also a common side dish ( banchan) in Korea.
In Japan, bracken is known as warabi (わらび), and is steamed, boiled, or cooked in soups. Warabimochi bracken jelly, named after its resemblance to mochi rice cakes, is a popular traditional dessert, although commercial variants are often made with cheaper potato starch instead. The fiddleheads are also preserved in salt, sake, or miso. (2025). 9780415927468, Routledge. ISBN 9780415927468
In China, bracken is known as juecai (蕨菜), and is eaten like vegetables or preserved by drying. Also called "fernbrake", it is used as a vegetable in soups and stews.Longmeimei cooking channel: Archived at Ghostarchive and the
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Bracken can be ground into flour to make bread. In the Canary Islands, the rhizome was historically used to make a porridge called gofio. Both fronds and rhizomes have been used to produce beer in Siberia, and among indigenous peoples of North America.
Bracken leaves are used in the Mediterranean region to filter sheep's milk, and to store freshly made ricotta cheese.
P. esculentum rhizomes were traditionally used by the Māori people of New Zealand as a staple food, and are known as aruhe. They were eaten by exploring or hunting groups away from permanent settlements. The plant was widely distributed across New Zealand as a result of prehistoric deforestation, and planting on rich soils, which produced the best rhizomes. The rhizomes were dried, and could be heated and softened with a pounder ( patu aruhe), after which the starch could be sucked from the fibers. Patu aruhe were important ritual items, and several distinct styles were developed.
However, ptaquiloside is water-soluble and destroyed in heat (by cooking) and alkaline conditions (by soaking). Korean and Japanese cooks have traditionally soaked the shoots in water and ash to detoxify the plant before eating. Ptaquiloside also degenerates at room temperature, and denatures almost completely at boiling temperature. Despite this, moderation of consumption is still recommended to reduce chances of cancer formation. The British Royal Horticultural Society recommends against consumption of bracken altogether, by both humans and livestock.
Ptaquiloside has been shown to leach from wild bracken plants into the water supply, which has been implicated in high rates of stomach and oesophageal cancers in areas with high bracken growth, such as Wales and South America.
Uncooked bracken also contains the enzyme thiaminase, which breaks down thiamine (vitamin B1). Excessive consumption of bracken can lead to vitamin B1 deficiency (beriberi), especially in animals with simple stomachs. are less vulnerable because they synthesize thiamine.
In cattle, bracken poisoning can occur in acute and chronic forms, acute poisoning being the most common. Milk from cows that have eaten bracken may also contain ptaquiloside, which is especially concentrated in buttermilk. In pigs and horses, bracken poisoning induces vitamin B1 deficiency.
All methods need follow-up over time, starting with the advancing areas first. Given the decades elapsed to arrive at the current levels of coverage on many sites, slowing or reversing the process will be also of necessity long-term, with consistency and persistence from all parties being key.
Various techniques are recommended by Natural England and the RSPB to control bracken either individually or in combination RSPB Bracken management in the uplands.
Selective sprays like Starane, Access, Metsulfuron 600WG, etc. work well but only if sprayed in late autumn so the rhizomes store food for winter and hence absorb the poison.
On archaeological sites, chemical control is usually required as mechanical methods may cause damage.
Any bracken control programme must be completed, or bracken will re-establish.
A Bracken Control Group was established in 2012 to provide best-practice guidance for all bracken control techniques. The Group has also been responsible for submitting an application for an Emergency Authorisation to secure the continued availability of Asulam for bracken control, following the decision not to register the product under new regulations in the EU. Registration has been re-applied for but this will not be available until 2017 at the earliest. Until re-registration is approved the Group will aim to keep Asulam available under the emergency provisions. Bracken Control Group website
The creature ’Bracken’ from the 2023 video game Lethal Company is named after the plant.
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