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Veracruz, formally Veracruz de Ignacio de la Llave, officially the Free and Sovereign State of Veracruz de Ignacio de la Llave, is one of the 31 states which, along with Mexico City, comprise the 32 Federal Entities of Mexico. Located in eastern Mexico, Veracruz is bordered by seven states: Tamaulipas, San Luis Potosí, Hidalgo, Puebla, Oaxaca, Chiapas, and Tabasco. Veracruz is divided into 212 municipalities, and its capital city is Xalapa.
Veracruz has a significant share of the coastline of the Gulf of Mexico on the east of the state. The state is noted for its mixed ethnic and indigenous populations, and its cuisine reflects the many cultural influences that have come through the state because of the importance of the port of Veracruz. In addition to the capital city, the state's largest cities include Veracruz, Coatzacoalcos, Córdoba, Minatitlán, Poza Rica, Boca Del Río and Orizaba.
The first major civilization in the territory of the current state was the Olmecs, centered in the Coatzacoalcos River region. Its principal ceremonial site was San Lorenzo Tenochtitlán, with other important centers including Tres Zapotes in the city of Veracruz and La Venta in Tabasco. Olmec civilization reached its peak about 2,600 years ago, producing colossal stone heads that remain its most recognizable artistic achievement. These ceremonial sites were among the most complex of their era, leading many anthropologists to regard the Olmecs as the "mother culture" of Mesoamerican civilizations. Nevertheless, historian John Schmal notes that by 300 BCE, the Olmecs had been "eclipsed by other emerging civilizations in Mesoamerica".
The Totonacs, who continue to exist as a distinct group today, traditionally inhabited a region known as Totonacapan, located between the Cazones and Papaloapan Rivers in northern Veracruz. Pre-Columbian Totonacs subsisted on hunting, fishing, and agriculture, cultivating maize, beans, chili peppers, and squash; are also native to the region. Characteristic artifacts include clay sculptures depicting smiling faces. El Tajín, located near Papantla, is a major archaeological site of the Totonacs; however, the culture reached its peak at Cempoala, which is situated about inland from the modern port of Veracruz, before falling under Aztec control. At the time of the Spanish arrival in 1519, the Totonac population numbered approximately 250,000, distributed across fifty settlements and speaking four dialects, with about 25,000 inhabitants in Cempoala alone.
The Huastecs traditionally and currently inhabit the far north of Veracruz and extend into Tamaulipas, Hidalgo, San Luis Potosí, Querétaro, and Puebla. Their language and agricultural practices are similar to those of the Mayan peoples, but only limited architectural and ceramic remains survive from the early Huastec culture. The civilization reached its height between 1200 and 1519, prior to Spanish conquest.
During the 15th and early 16th centuries, the Aztecs established control over much of Veracruz, dividing the territory into the tributary provinces of Tochtepec, Cuetlaxtlan, Cempoallan, Quauhtochco, Jalapa, Misantla, and Tlatlauhquitepec. They valued the region for its vegetation and crops such as cedar, fruit, cotton, cacao, maize, beans, and vanilla. The Huastecs were incorporated into the provinces of Atlan and Tochpan. However, Totonac resistance to Aztec rule was frequent; as a result, rulers from Axayacatl in 1480 to Moctezuma II in the early 1500s were forced to dispatch troops to suppress uprisings.
Among the first groups encountered by the Spanish in the Americas were the Totonac people. Juan de Grijalva was the first Spaniard to make contact with the Totonacs near present-day Veracruz. Seeking to free his people from Aztec rule, Totonac ruler Tlacochcalcatl offered conquistador Hernán Cortés 50,000 warriors to take Tenochtitlan. With Spanish assistance, the Totonacs expelled Aztec tax collectors and took over some Aztec outposts. The city of Veracruz was established as the first Spanish-controlled municipality on the coast. Cortés then advanced towards Tenochtitlan, initiating the Spanish conquest. As Cortés's campaign progressed, certain Totonac factions sided with the Spanish, while the Huastecs, also under Aztec rule, resisted Cortés's forces. After the Aztecs were defeated at Tenochtitlan, Cortés sent a unit to conquer the Huastecs as well.
During the early conquest era, Cortés established , which rewarded conquerors with the labor of conquered indigenous people. The indigenous ruler of a settlement was charged with mobilization of labor and tribute owed to the holder of the encomienda. Multiple encomiendas were established in Veracruz, which changed ownership over time, but early on came under the direct control of the Spanish Crown rather than individual encomenderos.Peter Gerhard, A Guide to the Historical Geography of New Spain, Revised Edition. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press 1993.
During the colonial era, Veracruz was the main port of entry for immigrants from Spain, enslaved Africans, and luxury goods for import and export. The first group of Franciscans arrived in Veracruz in 1524, walking barefoot to the capital of the Spanish colony of New Spain.Altman, et al. The Early History of Greater Mexico, p. 119. The route between Veracruz and the Spanish capital of Mexico City, built on the site of the Aztec capital Tenochtitlan, was the key trade route during the colonial era. Much of the history of the state is involved with the port city that Cortés founded in 1519. Veracruz became the principal and often only port to export and import goods between the colony of New Spain and Spain itself. To ensure the port's monopoly, Veracruz established control over almost all of New Spain's Gulf coastline. New Spain's silver and cochineal red dye were the two most important exports from the port, along with chocolate, vanilla, and chili peppers. Imports included livestock (sheep, cows, goats, horses), wheat and other cultivars. Slaves, pineapple, and sugar cane were introduced from the Caribbean. Such valuable trade made the port a highly prized target for pirates during the colonial period, resulting in frequent attacks and sackings. This led to the building of the fort of San Juan de Ulúa, a site Juan de Grijalva visited in 1518,Thomas, Hugh. Conquest: Montezuma, Cortes, and the Fall of Old Mexico. p. 173 and the fortification of the city overall.
Much of Totonac and Huastec culture have survived the colonial period into the present day, largely due to northern Veracruz's rugged terrain and thick vegetation, and lack of resources that the Spanish sought. Veracruz is considered to be where the "mestizo" or mixed European/indigenous ethnicities began, which is a large part of Mexican cultural identity.
Arriving with the Spanish conquerors, new diseases made their first appearance in the continent. Influenza decimated the native population of the province, prompting the importation of enslaved Africans during the colonial period, starting in the 16th century. The Spanish imported between 500,000 and 1,000,000 West African slaves into Mexico between 1535 and 1767. As New Spain did not have any laws prohibiting interracial marriage, miscegenation between indigenous and African populations began almost immediately. People of this mixed heritage are called Afro-Mestizo, which includes all 3 ethnicities: Indigenous, African, and Spanish.
Runaway slaves ( cimarrones) became problematic to public order since they frequently formed robber bands that attacked travelers on highways. The Spanish Crown took action against these groups beginning in the late sixteenth century, but a major rebellion broke out in 1606 in the Villa Rica, Nueva Veracruz, Antón Lizardo, and Rio Blanco areas. The most consequential rebellion occurred in the Orizaba area and involved about 500 fugitive slaves. In 1609, Gaspar Yanga, a fugitive slave, led an insurrection against the Spanish. Unrest continued until 1618, when the Spanish government eventually signed an amnesty pact which gave the Africans the right to form their own community in exchange for suppressing bandit activity. The town of San Lorenzo de Zerral established, and was later renamed the municipality of Yanga. Yanga's rebellion marked the first time slavery was abolished in the Americas.
In the first half of the seventeenth century, cities such as Córdoba, Orizaba, and Xalapa were established or expanded to safeguard the trade route between Mexico City and the port of Veracruz. During this time, the Spanish and mixed-ethnicities population increased as the purely indigenous population continued to fall to a fraction of pre-Conquest levels (due now to mixing, rather than disease). Trade through Veracruz was restricted mainly to Spain, with only limited commerce permitted with England and other Spanish colonies, until the Decreto de Libre Comercio authorized free trade within Spanish-held realms in 1778, which opened up more of Europe. The reform increased the port's importance and the prosperity of its inhabitants.
Beyond the port, in other areas of the province, the economy was based on agriculture, livestock, and commerce. In 1720, Xalapa hosted its first trade fair, establishing the city as a key point of exchange between inland Mexican goods and foreign imports; this role later contributed to its designation as the state capital.
In 1746, the state was divided into 14 civil jurisdictions: Pánuco, Tampico, Huayacocotla, Huauchinango, Papantla, Misantla, Xalapa, Jalacingo, Veracruz, Córdoba, Orizaba, Cosamaloapan, Tuxtla, and Cotaxtla.
In 1824, soldiers loyal to the Spanish Crown made their last stand against the independence movement in 1824 at the port city of Veracruz and the fort of San Juan de Ulúa, where Cortés landed three hundred years earlier.
While the last of the Spanish held on in San Juan de Ulúa, Agustín de Iturbide had been declared the emperor of Mexico in 1822. However, his reign quickly encountered resistance from those favoring a republican form of government, including from Antonio López de Santa Anna from his stronghold in Veracruz state. Months later, Iturbide would go into exile and Santa Anna would eventually hold nine terms as president.
The French intervened in Mexico through Veracruz for the first time in the 1838, in what became the Pastry War. The port was blockaded. Efforts to defend the country were coordinated from Xalapa. The port was bombarded, but eventually a settlement was reached.
During the Mexican–American War, the port was blockaded again, this time by the Americans. Initial American attempts in 1847 to land in Alvarado were checked, but the Americans then made a plan to land a few miles south of Veracruz, which surrendered after a 20-day siege, defeated General Santa Anna's forces at the Battle of Cerro Gordo, and marched inland through Xalapa towards Mexico City, led by General Winfield Scott. Mexico surrendered shortly after.
The municipalities of Tuxpan and Chicontepec belonged to Puebla until 1853, when they were annexed to Veracruz to give the state its final form. In 1855, the State Government Palace was constructed. During the Reform War, the major player was Ignacio de la Llave whose name is part of the state's official designation. In 1858, the port became the site for the liberal government under Benito Juárez after he was forced out of Mexico City during the Reform War. Their control of this port and its customs duties allowed liberal forces to gather resources. Conservative forces attacked the state but were repelled from both the port and Xalapa.
The Reform War devastated Mexico's economy, leaving it unable to repay its European debts. As a result, Juárez annulled the country's foreign debt, prompting Britain, Spain, and France to occupy the Mexican Gulf Coast in October 1861 to force repayment. Under normal conditions, this move would have been blocked by the United States under the Monroe Doctrine, however, that nation was occupied with a Civil War at the time, and the European powers believed that the Americans could not act. Spanish troops under General Manuel Gasset occupied the port of Veracruz without local resistance. The New York Times, "The Expedition to Mexico," January 3, 1861 Then, in November, the power was also occupied by British and French forces. The Spanish and the British withdrew after making deals with Juárez, but the French pushed on to establish the reign of Maximilian I of Mexico. However, this was short-lived and the French were expelled through Veracruz in 1866/67.
In 1863, the state was officially named Veracruz-Llave. After the French were expelled, the state government was in the port of Veracruz. In 1878, the capital was transferred to Orizaba. It was later moved to Xalapa in 1885.
By the end of the century, many infrastructure improvements, such as roads and railways (especially the Ferrocarril Interoceánico) had been completed with the major cities being Veracruz, Orizaba, Xalapa, Córdoba, Jalacingo, Chicontepec and Tantoyuca. The discovery of oil in the north of the state attracted foreign firms, which brought machinery needed for its extraction. These companies included Huasteca Company Petroleum and El Aguila along with American and English firms. During the same time period, uprisings against the government under Porfirio Díaz in the agricultural south of the state were brutally repressed.
In April 1914, the Tampico Affair, which concerned U.S. sailors in the city of Tampico, caused President Woodrow Wilson to send American troops to Veracruz for six months, after which Mexico severed diplomatic relations with the United States.
After the Revolution, agrarian reform, including the redistribution of land and the creation of ejidos took place here. The oil companies in the north of the state were nationalized and consolidated into PEMEX in the 1930s by Lázaro Cárdenas. In the 1950s, more road construction, such as the Mexico City- Poza Rica, Veracruz-Alvarado- Coatzacoalco and Tinajas-Ciudad Aleman-Tlacoatalpan highways were constructed. The Universidad Veracruzana was expanded as well. In 1960, the Xalapa Museum of Anthropology was inaugurated as well as the Coatzacoalco-Salina Cruz highway. The Veracruz city international airport was opened in the 1970s.
In the ten years after 2006, at least 3,600 people have disappeared within the state.
Multiple mass graves have been found within the state.
This is seen as part of the over 28,000 missing individuals related to the Mexican Drug War. Within the state the Gulf Cartel and Los Zetas have battled for control. Additionally, this has led to journalists being targeted and killed within the state.
The mountains are of the Sierra Madre Oriental and the Trans-Mexican Volcanic Belt. Mountain ranges include the Sierra de Topila, Sierra de Otontepec, Sierra de Huayacocotla, Sierra de Coxquihui, Sierra de Chiconquiaco, Sierra de Jalacingo, Sierra de Axocuapan, Sierra de Huatusco, Sierra de Zongolica, and the Sierra de Los Tuxtlas. Major peaks include Pico de Orizaba (), Cofre de Perote (), Cerro de Tecomates (), Cerro del Vigía Alta () and Cerro de 3 Tortas (). The Pico de Orizaba is covered in snow year round; the Cofre de Perote is covered in winter. Major valleys include the Acultzingo, Córdoba, Maltrata, Orizaba and San Andrés.
Veracruz has over 40 rivers and tributaries, which transport rich silt from the state's highlands to its coastal regions and valleys. These rivers also provide water for hydroelectric power and irrigation. All of the rivers and streams that cross the state begin in the Sierra Madre Oriental or in the Central Mesa, flowing east to the Gulf of Mexico. The important ones include: Actopan River, Acuatempan river, Río Blanco, Cazones River, Coatzacoalcos River, Río de La Antigua, Ayyappan River, Jamapa River, Nautla River, Pánuco River, Papaloapan River, Tecolutla River, Tonalá River, Tuxpan River and Xoloapa River. The largest in terms of water discharge are the Pánuco, Tuxpan, Papaloapan, Coazocoalcos and Uspanapa River. The Panuco, Tuxpan, Papaloapan and Coatzacoalcos are navigable. Two of Mexico's most polluted rivers, the Coatzacoalcos and the Río Blanco are located in the state. Much of the pollution comes from industrial sources, but the discharge of sewerage and uncontrolled garbage disposal are also major contributors. The state has very few sewage treatment plants, with only 10% of sewage being treated before discharge.
The state also has ten major waterfalls and ten major coastal lagoons. There is only one significant lake, called Lake Catemaco. Off the coast are the islands of Isla de Lobos, Isla de los Burros, Isla de Sacrificios, Isla de Salmendina, Isla del Idolo, Isladel Toro, Isla Frijoles, Isla Juan A Ramirez, Isla Pajaros and Isla Terrón and the ocean reefs called Blanquilla, Medio, Tangüillo, Tuxpan, Gualleguilla, Gallega, Anegada de Adento Anegada de Afuera and Cabezo.
The northern part of the state and higher mountain areas are convergence zones between lowland evergreen tropical forests and more temperate flora and fauna. It is also the northernmost occurrence of subhumid tropical forest in Mexico, although little of this remains, mostly on steep slopes. The tropical forests of the Veracruz moist forests ecoregion are situated in the northeastern coastal plain and extend into southern Tamaulipas state, on the east side of the Sierra Madre Oriental. The soils here are volcanic and shallow, but with rich organic matter. Species that predominate include Mayan breadnut ( Brosimum alicastrum), sapodilla ( Manilkara zapota), rosadillo ( Celtis monoica), Bursera simaruba, Dendropanax arboreus, and Sideroxylon capiri. This ecoregion extends into the central part of the state, with vegetation changing to include mahogany ( Swietenia macrophylla), sapodilla ( Manilkara zapota), Bernoullia flammea, and Astronium graveolens. In the central part of the state, the Veracruz dry forests extend from the Sierra to the coast, south of the Sierra de Chiconquiaco. The Petén–Veracruz moist forests occupy the southern part of the state, and extend eastwards through neighboring Chiapas and Tabasco states into Guatemala.
Veracruz has been described as having one of the richest varieties of wildlife in the western hemisphere. There is an especially diverse array of endemic insects like the conspicuous Arsenura armida. As well as insects, the state is known for its many arachnids, and features over 25 species of tarantula (Theraphosidae), of which many are endemic. The state is part of Birdlife International's Endemic Bird Area (EBA) project due to the number of endemic birds here. Some of these include green-cheeked amazon ( Amazona viridigenalis), Tamaulipas crow ( Corvus imparatus), Altamira yellowthroat ( Geothlypis flavovelata) and crimson-collared grosbeak ( Rhodothraupis celaeno). Despite much of the deterioration of the forest areas, it is still an important stopover for migratory birds as well. Many endangered mammal species can be found here including two endemic rodents ( Peromyscus ochraventer and Neotoma angustapalata), the jaguar ( Panthera onca), ocelot ( Leopardus pardalis), jaguarundi ( Herpailurus yaguarondi) and white-nosed coati ( Nasua narica). The endangered Baird's tapir may occasionally be spotted in the state's southern jungle regions, such as Biósfera Los Tuxtlas. This region is also the northernmost extent of the primate Alouatta palliata, or mantled howler.
Most of Veracruz's native forests have been destroyed and replaced by scrub and secondary communities of trees. From 1900 to 1987, over of forest were logged, resulting in the loss of habitat and biodiversity. Much of the logging is due to commercial timber, search for tropical hardwoods, and the clearing of land for local farmers, especially for cattle grazing. Only 20% of Veracruz's original ecosystem remains, with 64% transformed by human exploitation. Despite some efforts at conservation and reclamation, exploitation continues to put pressure on remaining wild areas.
The state has 31 environmentally protected areas in 21 different municipalities. Nine are urban parks, three are national parks (Pico de Orizaba, Cofre de Perote and San José de los Molinos). The Cofre de Perote National Park is 11,700 hectares of pine and oyamel forest, which was created in 1937. The Los Tuxtlas Biosphere Reserve covers the municipalities of Ángel R. Cabada, Santiago Tuxtla, San Andres Tuxtla, Catemaco, Soteapan, Mecayapan, Pajapan and Tatahuicapan for a total of . It contains various volcanos such as San Martín and Santa Marta and rich biodiversity as it stretches from sea level to higher elevations, with 16 climate regions groups into four climate types. Forest types range from evergreen tropical rainforest to pine. 75% of species here are also found in Central America and there is a total of 2,368 plant species. Some, such as Costus dirzoi, Daphnopsis megacarpa, Eugenia sotoesparzae, Inga sinacae, Miconia ibarrae, Mormodes tuxtlensis, and Thelypteris rachyflexuosa, are native only to this area. Wildlife includes 102 mammal species, 49 amphibian, 109 reptilian, 561 bird species and more. Species in danger of extinction include the jaguar, spider monkey and anteater.
The Veracruz Reef System is also considered to be a national park and is mostly off the coast of Veracruz city, Boca del Río and Alvarado. The area includes coral reefs, seaweed beds and other marine vegetation, covering an area of . There are seventeen reefs in total, some of which jut above the surface to form small islands. This system links with the reef systems of Campeche and Yucatán.
There is about 1 million hectares of cultivable land, half of which is privately owned and 43% is ejido or communal land; the rest is occupied by human settlements. There are 3,620 ejidos parceled out to 270,000 ejido members. 52.5% of agricultural land is used for the growing of crops or used as pasture and 43.1% is forest or rainforest. Chief agricultural products include coffee, vanilla, sugarcane, tobacco, bananas, coconuts, and vegetables, but local farmers depend mainly on corn and beans. Two corn crops per year are generally produced, planted on 644,936 hectares with a production of 1,114,325 tons. The state is the leading national producer of coffee, sugarcane, corn, and rice. Coffee is grown on 152,993 hectares producing 400,575 tons. Export earnings from this crop are about US$232 million annually. Most coffee is grown in the mountain areas of Córdoba-Huatusco, Coatepec-Teocelo-Cosautlán and Misantla-Tlapacoyan-Atzalan. Sugarcane is cultivated on 254,000 hectares, producing 16,867,958 tons annually. Veracruz is the largest producer of rice with 24,000 hectares producing 120,000 tons. Much is this crop is protected by import bans from Asia.
The state grows half of Mexico's citrus fruit, and produces the largest number of citrus varieties. Citrus cultivation occupies 180,577 hectares and yields 2,575,140 tons annually. Varieties include oranges, tangerines, Mandarin orange, limes, and grapefruit. The majority of citrus is grown in the northern part of the state. Most of the limes grown are exported, which supports the packing and shipping industry. Veracruz is the largest mango producer in the country, with 31,640 hectares in cultivation that produce 287,000 tons, primarily of the manila variety, which is preferred in Mexico. 95% of mangoes grown in Veracruz are consumed fresh within Mexico, although exports to Canada have begun. Vanilla beans, another major Mexican crop, are native to Veracruz. Most vanilla beans are grown in the area known as Totonacapan in and around Papantla.
Livestock raising is critical to the state's economy. There are over 300,000 production units in the state, most of which raise cattle. Veracruz is the main beef producer for Mexico, producing 14% of the country's total beef. In addition to beef cattle, other livestock species include dairy cattle, pigs, sheep, goats, horses, domestic fowl, and bees.
The state's inland tropical forests supply , hardwoods, and rubber. About 20% of Veracruz is forested, with 220,000 hectares of temperate forest and 1,200,000 hectares of tropical forests. Logging in the state produces 128,254 m3 of wood products per year. The most exploited species include pine, oyamel, cypress and oak. Some tropical hardwoods are harvested as well.
Veracruz's long coastline supports a large fishing industry, producing 20% of Mexico's catch. Most of the country's mojarra, oysters, and shrimp come from the state. Other major fish catches include crab, white seabass and red snapper.
Agroindustry focuses on the processing of coffee and sugar products, with citrus packers holding an important position as well.
Veracruz was a pioneer in both the extraction and refining of petroleum products. The state has about one-fourth of Mexico's petroleum reserves and ranks third in petroleum production. Most of this production is concentrated in the northern part of the state. Approximately of oil are produced each year and of natural gas. Petrochemicals represent 28.1% of the state's manufacturing and ranks first nationally. There are 22 petrochemical plants, with the most important being La Cangrejera, Jáltipan de Morelos, Poza Rica, Cosoleacaque, Pajaritos and Minatitlán.
Transportation and commerce are important factors in the state, mostly linked to importing and exporting through its four deepwater ports. The focus of most of these activities is the port of Veracruz, whose location on the Gulf coast of Mexico makes it a key export hub. It handles 75% of Mexico's port activity, with exports from Veracruz traveling to Europe, Latin America, and the United States. Its primary exports include coffee, fertilizer, fish and crustaceans, and fresh fruits. Other ports include those in Tuxpan and Coatzacoalcos. Most highway, rail and air connections link to the port of Veracruz and other ports to the south. The state has 73 companies that have been classified as high-volume exporters and it is ranked sixth in the country for exports. The state contains five major food wholesale markets, 146 government sponsored markets, about 75,000 private stores and 201 supermarkets. Wholesale vendors focus on agricultural products such as wood, livestock and food products. The major focal point for international business is the World Trade Center EXPOVER in Boca del Río. Inaugurated in 1989, the center has facilities to accommodate 5,000 people in , an exhibition hall of , a business center and parking for over 800 vehicles.
In the industrial sector, relatively poor municipios are not catching up to relatively rich ones though the latter are not diverging either. A policy of encouraging much more domestic and/or foreign investment is called for if poorer areas are to prosper and the outflow of residents is to stop.
Ceramics have been made in almost all parts of Veracruz since the Olmecs. One area known for its work is Papantla which also includes life sized representations of folk dancers from the area along with more mundane items of glazed and unglazed pottery. Minatitlán is known for its production of ceramic cooking utensils which are also popular in the neighboring municipalities of Actopan and Naolinco. San Miguel Aguasuelos and Jalcomulco are known for their white clay wares which include water jars, toys, nativity scenes, bells and more.
Traditional clothing and embroidery can be most easily found in the La Huasteca area, where elaborately decorated women's blouses can be seen, especially in the El Higo and Tlalixcoyan area. In Totonacalpan, men are still often seen in white shirts and pants with a bag to hold personal items. This dress dates back to the early colonial period and had not changed much since then. Other areas specialize in wool items such as Naranjos de Amatlán, Minatilán and the city of Veracruz where items such as dresses, skirts and jackets. These and other textiles such as tablecloths and napkins are often decorated with cross-stitch. Leather items include shoes, jackets, bags, wallets, belts and boots and are usually made in the La Huasteca region, Teocolo, Citlaltépetl and Naolinco.
During the colonial period, a variety of spices and ingredients were introduced to Veracruz, significantly impacting the local cuisine. In terms of spices, the Spanish introduced bay laurel, cilantro, parsley, parsley, and thyme from Europe and cloves, cinnamon, and black pepper from Asia. They also brought almonds, capers, garlic, olives, olive oil, rice, and wheat. Capers, garlic, and olive oil are essential ingredients in what is perhaps the most famous specialty of the region, huachinango a la veracruzana, red snapper in a spicy tomato sauce. Caribbean imports such as sugar cane and pineapple were adapted as well as the peanut, brought from Africa by the Portuguese (although the peanut is originally from South America).
Veracruz cuisine divides into six regions called Sotavento, Centro Norte, Centro Sur, Sierra, Costa Norte, and Los Tuxtlas. The Sotovento area is in the south of the state, and the dishes here are heavily based on rice. Common dishes include arroz a la tumbada, which is rice cooked with seafood or meat and rice with fried bananas. Seafood dishes are also prominent based mostly on fish and shrimp. A common ingredient in dishes is a herb called "hoja santa" or "hierba Santa", which is a plant of the family Piperaceae. The Centro Norte is centered on Xalapa. Dishes here tend to be more indigenous in nature, heavily flavored with mild chili peppers. Common dishes here include Chilehuates, similar to a tamale, stuffed chile peppers, and enchiladas. Less seafood and more pork and domestic fowl are consumed. The Centro Sur area is mostly indigenous and encompasses the area of, Huatusco, Coscomatepec, Cotaxtla, Orizaba, Amatlán, Huilango y las españolas Córdoba y Fortín de las Flores, la negra Yanga and San Lorenzo de los Negros. Dishes here are similar to Centro Norte, but appear more often as this region is a major producer of the vegetable. Meats in adobo sauce are common as well. The Sierra and Costa Norte encompass the northern part of the state, such as the Pánuco River area and Totonacapan. This area is noted for a number of unique dishes such as frijoles en achuchutl, made with black beans, pork rind, chayotes, squash seeds, and jalapeño peppers. are a kind of filled tortilla made with corn dough, stuffed with black beans, chorizo, eggs, or seafood, which then are fried in lard. Tamales are often made with banana leaves. The area is also known for its breads, especially anise–flavored rolls. The Los Tuxtlas area is centered on the communities of Santiago, San Andrés and Catemaco, which were the center of the Olmec civilization. The cuisine in this area features yucca, "chocos" (a type of edible flower), fish, especially mojarra, and exotic meats such as monkey, and iguana.
The Regional Museum of Anthropology in Tuxpan houses more than 400 pieces from pre-Hispanic groups in the region, displayed in four halls. Most of the pieces come from the center of the state and from the Huasteca region.On the edge of the Tuxpan River. The city also has the Mexican-Cuban Museum. It contains a collection of photographs from the Cuban Revolution as well as a statue of José Martí.
Other museums are scattered across the state. The Salvador Ferrando Museum is located in Tlacotalpan and contains many everyday items and art from the 16th to the 19th centuries. The Tuxteco Regional Museum in Santiago de Tuxtla contains Olmec and Totonac artifacts including art objects, farming implements, utensils and more. In the garden area, there are giant stone sculptures from the Tres Zapotes site. The Jardín Central (Central Garden) of the municipality of Tierra Blanca has a number of Totonac archeological pieces on display. The Archeological Museum of Córdoba, located in the city of the same name, has three exhibition halls containing artifacts from the Maya, Olmec, Toltec and Huastec cultures. There is also a collection of historical photographs of the city. The Veracruz State Art Museum (Museo de Arte del Estado de Veracruz) is located in Orizaba in what was the monastery associated with the Concordia Church. Its collection includes works by Diego Rivera, Ignacio Rosas and Gonzalo Argüelles. It also contains a collection of historical photographs related to Veracruz and art. The Malintzin Archeological Museum in the municipality of Nogales is a small museum with one hall that contains photographs and documents. It is located in the church where Malinche and Juan de Jaramillo were supposedly married.
The Christian celebration of Candlemas is fused with traditions associated with Chalchiuhtlicue, the goddess of water, rivers, lakes and ocean. She was replaced by the Virgin of Candlemas, the protector of fishermen, making this celebration particularly important on the coast, especially in Tlacotalpan, where it is celebrated with much pomp. In Jáltipan de Morelos, ethnic Nahua peoples and Popolucas dress in elaborate costumes and arrange their hair in intricate styles. In Santa María Magdalena, on July 22, bulls are set free to roam the streets. Corn harvest festivals are prominent in the Huasteca region in municipalities such as Chontla, Chicontepec, and Ixhuatlán de Madero. These generally include native dances and foods based on corn.
However, the state's most famous dance is as much a ritual and daredevil act as movements performed to music. The Danza de los Voladores (Dance of the Flyers) is a ceremony/ritual which has its roots in the pre-Hispanic period and presently best known as associated with the town of Papantla, Veracruz. It is believed to have originated with the Nahua peoples, Huastec people and Otomi people peoples in central Mexico, and then spread throughout most of Mesoamerica. The ritual consists of dance and the climbing of a 30-meter pole from which four of the five participants then launch themselves tied with ropes to descend to the ground. The fifth remains on top of the pole, dancing and playing a flute and drum. According to myth, the ritual was created to ask the gods to end a severe drought. Although the ritual did not originate with the Totonac people, today it is most strongly associated with them, especially those in and around Papantla, as the ceremony has died off in most other places. The ceremony was named an Intangible Cultural Heritage by UNESCO in order to help the ritual survive and thrive in the modern world.
The state's best-known musical style is called the "son". A "son" is a musical variation which traces its origins to Spain and developed during the 17th and 18th centuries. It is the state's most popular musical style shows influences from the many peoples who have lived here such as indigenous groups, Portuguese, Italians, Africans, French and others. The music is generally performed by harps, violins and guitars, with an occasional wind instrument. huapango is a variety of son played in the north of the state mostly among the Totonacs. Son jarocho is the better known and more popular variety played in the south of the state. The famous Grammy award-winning song "La Bamba" by Los Lobos is said have its roots in a traditional folk song from Veracruz (hence the reference to the "Marinero" in that song).González, pp. 20–21
The state has produced a number of musicians famous in the country. One of the best known is Francisco Gabilondo Soler. Gabilondo Soler is best known for creating a character known as "Cri-cri", a singing cricket for a radio show in the first half of the 20th century. As a musician, he specialized in writing children's songs such as "Abuelito", "Caminito de la escuela", "El baile de los muñecos", "El burrito" and "La negrita Cucurumbé". A number of his works have been translated into other languages. Another famous musician is Agustín Lara, who has had more international fame. Nicknamed "Flaco de oro" (golden skinny one), he always insisted that he was born in Tlacotalpan, Veracruz and not Mexico City as records show. Lara formed his first band in 1930 called El Son de Marabú and toured almost continuously in Mexico and abroad during his career. His most famous compositions include "Veracruz", "Noche de Ronda" and "Solamente una vez". Other prominent musicians include Toña "La Negra" or María Antonia del Carmen Peregino, Narcisco Serradel, Lorenzo Barcelata and María Greever.
However, most of Veracruz's best-known artists are from the 19th and 20th centuries. In the 19th century, these include Miguel Mata Reyes, Salvador Ferrando, José María Jara, Enrique Guerra and Alberto Fuster. Miguel Mata Reyes is best known for his contributions to the design of the Palacio de Bellas Artes as well a portrait of Antonio López de Santa Anna. Salvador Ferrando was a portrait and landscape artist from the north of the state. Until recently, most of his work had been hidden in a museum named after him in the Tlacotalpan region. Much of it now is on display at the Museo de Arte de Veracruz in Orizaba. José María Jara is noted for his paintings of Veracruz customs, whose works include El Velorio, which was presented at the World's Fair in Paris. Enrique Guerra was an important sculptor at the end of the 19th century. His best-known works are bas reliefs and include Asesinato de César, Coroliano, Thais and Crisálida. Alberto Fuster was most active at the end of the century and is noted for bringing symbolism painting to Mexico from his stay in Europe. His works include El progreso, Safo en el templo de Delfos and Nativa con loro.
There are three important artists from the 20th century, Carlos Bracho, Norberto Martínez and Teodoro Cano García. Active in the first half of the century, sculptor Carlos Bracho's work has been compared to that of Juan Rulfo. His works have been done in plaster, bronze, terracotta and green onyx and include monumental works which can be found in the cities of Xalapa, Puebla, Pachuca and Mexico City. His best-known works are El abrazo, Cabeza verde and El campesino se apodera de la tierra. Norberto Martínez only lived 45 years but is considered one of the most prolific of Mexican painters who dedicated most of his works to social themes. A number of these are early murals such as El comercio in the Jáuregi de Xalapa market as well as an untitled work in a private home in Córdoba which deals with the fusion of the Spanish, indigenous and African ethnicities in Mexico. Later works include the three murals in the main stairwell of the School of Law at the University of Xalapa and El hombre y el conocimiento at the Universidad Veracruzana. Teodoro Cano García is one of Mexico's most famous muralists of the late 20th century, famous for the promotion of the Totonac people culture of his hometown of Papantla. He has created paintings, sculptures, etchings, photography and mixed media works with his murals and sculptures most acclaimed. Examples of his work can be seen in various parts of public buildings in Papantla.
Most of Veracruz's older architecture can be found in the inland cities of Xalapa and Córdoba. Despite being the first Spanish settlement, the city of Veracruz lost most its older structures to the various invasions it has suffered. Architecture from the 16th to the 19th century includes colonial Spanish, Moorish, Neo gothic and Neoclassical. From the 20th century on, a number of names stand out. Armando Bravo Ramírez remodeled the State Government Palace and the facade of the Capillas de Ánimas, both in Xalapa. Other prominent names responsible for many projects in the state include Luis González Aparicio, Bernal Lascuraín Rangel and Luis Manuel Tello Deschamps.
Writers born at the end of the 19th century, such as Gregorio López y Fuentes, Manuel Maples Arce and Jorge Mateo Cuesta Porte-Petit were often concerned with social issues. Works of this type include El Indio by López, Metrópolis by Maples and a poem called Canto a un dios mineral by Cuesta. The following generation, born in the first decades of the 20th century, became known as the Generation of the 1950s. During this time Veracruz's literary tradition consolidated and decided to break type. One example is Juan Hernández Ramírez's writing of poetry in the Nahuatl spoken in the La Huasteca area of Veracruz. One important name from this generation is Emilio Carballido who wrote about 100 plays as well as scripts for radio and television. Some of his works include Rosalba y los llaveros, Felicidad and Las visitaciones del Diablo. In 1996, he won the Premio Nacional de Literatura and in 2002 he received the Ariel de Oro for his work in cinema.
The major state university is the Universidad Veracruzana, with offers 56 bachelor's degrees, 37 masters and 5 PhDs. It is based in the capital of Xalapa and is noted for its large and varied sports programs. There are campuses in fourteen other cities. About 37% of university students attend the main public university, with a student population of 47,000 undergraduates and 2,000 postgraduates. Other important schools include Instituto Tecnologico de Veracruz in Veracruz, Universidad Anáhuac in Xalapa, Universidad de Xalapa in Xalapa, ITESM in Córdoba, Universidad Cristóbal Colón in Veracruz, the Veracruz Naval Academy and the Instituto Tecnológico del Mar.
The number of ethnic communities in the state has been calculated at 2,062. The most numerous include the Nahua peoples, Totonacs, Huastecs, Popolucs, Zapotec peoples, Chinantecas, Otomis, Mazatecas, Tepehuas, Mixtecas, Zoques, Mixe people, Mayas and Tzotzil people, all indigenous groups. The largest are Nahuas, who make up over half of the indigenous population. Most native communities can be found in 68 municipalities especially in Tehuipango, Mixtla de Altamirano, Astacinga, Soledad Atzompa, Atlahuilco, Tequila, Tlaquilpan, Los Reyes, Magdalena, San Andres Tenejapan, Tantoyuca, Zongolica, Chicontepec, Papantla, Ixhuatlán de Madero, Soteapan, Playa Vicente, Mecayapan y Coyutla, Benito Juárez, Coxquihi, Espinal, Filomeno Mata, Ixcatepec, Mecatlán and Zozocolco de Hidalgo. In 1998, about 10% of the population spoke an indigenous language; however, this does not take into account all indigenous peoples. The census of 2005 counted 605,135 as speaking an indigenous language.
There are also small immigrant communities of Spaniards, Italians, Basque and Lebanese people. Africans were first brought to Mexico through slavery to the Veracruz port. At one point, they outnumbered Europeans and a significant number ran away from haciendas and plantations to form their own communities, sometimes allied with indigenous groups. One such rebellion was led by Yanga, who successfully negotiated a free African community with Spanish authorities in 1609. Like other groups, many of African descent would intermarry with other groups, with the category of "mulatto" existing in the old colonial caste system for those with African blood. Today, the vast majority of in Veracruz and other parts of the country are spread out and intermixed with the rest of the population. According to the 2020 Census, 2.67% of Veracruz's population identified as Black, Afro-Mexican, or of African descent.
With a population of 7,110,214 (2005), Veracruz is the third most populous entity in the country, after the Federal District of Mexico City and the State of Mexico. Population growth has slowed in the state in the last decades, due to lower birthrates and the exodus of migrants, mostly men. Women outnumber men. One reason for the decline in birthrates is the elevation of education levels, especially among women. Another is urbanization, with about one-third of the state's population living in urban centers, especially Veracruz, Xalapa, Coatzacoalcos, Minatitlán and Papantla. Most (90%) of the state's communities, outside of municipal seats have fewer than 500 people and contain only 21% of the total population. The migration of men outside the state has put more women into the state's workforce. Approximately 75% of the population is under 45 years of age and 30% under the age of 15.
Life expectancy is just under the norm for the rest of the country. The overwhelming majority of people in the state are Catholic, however, there is a significant Protestant minority and a number who profess the Jewish faith.
To the north of the port city is the Sierra or Totonacalpan area of the state, home to the Totonac people. This is home to the important pre-Hispanic city of El Tajín and the present-day city of Papantla. The modern city is best known as the home of the Totonac version of the "danza de voladores"; there, the dancers spin from high poles. The area is also the native habitat of the vanilla bean.
To the south of the port is on the coast, is Catemaco. This is in a tropical area. The area's two main features are Lake Catemaco, which is located in the crater of an extinct volcano and Isla Tanaxpillo just off the coast. This island is also called the island of the monkeys or baboons due to a group of feral monkeys that escaped and found refuge here.
Inland is the coffee-growing region in and around the cities of Coatepec and Xalapa. Orizaba is best known for the volcano nearby but also has a large waterfall called El Elefante and a Cañon (Canyon) de Río Blanco.
El Zapotal is an archeological site which was discovered in 1971 in a region known at Mixtequlla (between the Blanco and Papaloapan Rivers). This site is noted for its clay figurines with smiling faces, part of an extremely large offering in honor of the god of death Mictlantecuhtli.
Cempoala is an archeological site located on the coast between the modern settlements of La Antigua and Ciudad Cardel. It was occupied when Hernán Cortés arrived, and he managed to form an alliance with the Totonacs here against the Aztecs. In the center of the site, there is a large plaza surrounded by temples and the palace of the Totonac chief. The site also has a small museum.
Quiahuiztlán is on the coast on a small mountain named Bernal. It is cut into the mountain as a series of terraces. It is located very close to where Cortés founded the initial Spanish settlement of Villa Rica de la Vera-Cruz.
The Castillo de Teayo (Teayo Castle) is really a pyramid, whose original name was Zapotitlán. It is located on the border between Huasctec and Totonac lands. It was abandoned in the 19th century.
The largest and most important site is El Tajín, located near the city of Papantla. The name is from the Totonac language and means "thunder", but no one knows what the true name of this city was. It is also unknown if the Totonac built it, but since they have dominated the region for centuries, they lay claim to it. The city developed from the end of the Classic period and the beginning of the Post Classic period, between 800 and 1150 C.E. It is divided into five zones, the Plaza del Arroyo Group, the Central Zone, the Gran Xicalcoliuhqui, Tajín Chico and the Column Complex. Its signature building is the Pyramid of the Niches, named after the 365 niches built into the levels of the structure. The site has a large number of Mesoamerican ball game courts, one with details reliefs showing the beheading of a ballplayer and his role in the afterlife.
The Tres Zapotes site is located the community of the same name. Covering 1.5 hectares, the main building has a square base, which is surrounded by gardens and trees. The most important find from his is Stele "C" which is on display at the Museo Nacional de Antropología in Mexico City.
El Pital is a site in the municipality of Martínez de la Torre. It consists of a mound with a pyramid base and stairs on the east side. The site's culture is considered to be a link between the coastal and highland cultures of the region.
Los Idolos is a site in the municipal city of Misantla, and was an important ceremonial site for the Totonacapan region. It consists of four rectangular patios linked by platforms and flat-topped mounds. Many of the structures are decorated with smooth river stone, thought to have come from the Misantla River.
The Centro Ceremonial Cuajilote is located on the Bobos River. It consists of a large plaza 400 meters long lined with structures. In the center of the plaza there are three shrines, one of which contains phallic figures.
The state contains of railway. Most of this is conceded by the federal government to private companies, with strategic stretches maintained directly by the government. Some of the private companies include Kansas City Southern de México and Ferrosur. These lines are used almost exclusively for the transportation of freight, which in 1999 added up to 37 million tons. Three rail lines serve the port of Veracruz exclusively. One is dedicated to the port of Coatzacalcos.
The ports of Veracruz are Tuxpan, Veracruz, Coatzacoalcos, Pajaritos, Minatitlán-Nanchital, Tecolutla, Nautla, Alvarado and Tlacotalpan. The first three are the ports for heavy cargo ships, with Veracruz the most important of the three. The others are small ports for small ships, fishing boats and tourism. All ports are operated privately with the exception of Pajaritos, which is operated by PEMEX. Port traffic in Veracruz account for 10% of all commercial traffic in the country, 23.4% of the port traffic of Mexico and 21% of all port traffic in the Gulf of Mexico and Caribbean. Goods imported through the state reach 16 out of Mexico's 31 states plus Mexico City. The port of Veracruz alone handles over 12 million tons of freight per year. Coatzacoalcos is important for its handling of petroleum products.
The state contains three major airports. "El Tajín" in Tihuatlán serving Poza Rica and "Canticas" in Minatitlán provide national service. "Heriberto Jara Corona" in the city of Veracruz provides national and international service. There are also 31 smaller regional airfields in municipalities such as Acayucán, Cazones de Herrera, Córdoba, Cuitlahuac, Juán Rodríguez Clara, Ozuluama, Platón Sánchez, Playa Vicente, Soconusco, Tamalín, Tamiahua, Tecolutla, Temapache, Tempoal and Tierra Blanca.
There are 202 radio stations (57 AM, 35 FM). Most are commercial or private but some are operated by non-profits and governmental agencies. There are 22 television stations; two channels are local, and the rest are repeaters from national broadcasters. Five companies provide cable and satellite television. Telmex controls over 75% of the telephone service in the state.
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