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Tendai-shū, also known as the Tendai Dharma Flower School (天台法華宗, Tendai hokke shū, sometimes just Hokkeshū), is a Mahayana tradition with significant Vajrayana elements that was officially established in Japan in 806 by the Japanese monk Saichō. The Tendai school, which has been based on Mount Hiei since its inception, rose to prominence during the Heian period (794–1185). It gradually eclipsed the powerful Hossō school and competed with the rival Shingon Buddhism to become the most influential sect at the Imperial court.
By the Kamakura period (1185–1333), Tendai had become one of the dominant forms of Japanese Buddhism, with numerous temples and vast landholdings. During the Kamakura period, various bhikkhu left Tendai to found new Buddhist schools such as Jōdo-shū, Jōdo Shinshū, Nichiren-shū and Sōtō Zen. The destruction of the head temple of Enryaku-ji by Oda Nobunaga in 1571, as well as the geographic shift of the capital away from Kyoto to Edo, ended Tendai's dominance, though it remained influential.Sansom, George (1961). A History of Japan 1334-1615. Stanford: Stanford University Press. p. 284. .
In Chinese language and Japanese, its name is identical to Tiantai (meaning "Celestial Platform"), its parent Chinese Buddhism tradition. Both traditions emphasize the importance of the Lotus Sutra and revere the teachings of the Tiantai patriarchs, especially Zhiyi. In English, the Japanese romanization Tendai is used to refer specifically to the Japanese school. According to Hazama Jikō, the main characteristic of Tendai is its comprehensive and universalist spirit, which is based on the "One Great Perfect Teaching", the idea that "all the teachings of the Buddha are ultimately without contradiction and can be unified in one comprehensive and perfect system."Hazama Jikō. The Characteristics of Japanese Tendai. Japanese Journal of Religious Studies 1987 14/2-3
Other unique elements include an exclusive use of the bodhisattva precepts for ordination (without the Pratimokṣa), a practice tradition based on the "Four Integrated Schools": (Mohe Zhiguan (meditation), Pure Land, Tantra and Precepts), and an emphasis on the study of Chinese Esoteric Buddhist sources. David W. Chappell sees Tendai as "the most comprehensive and diversified" Buddhist tradition which provides a religious framework that is "suited to adapt to other cultures, to evolve new practices, and to universalize Buddhism."Chappell, David W. (1987). 'Is Tendai Buddhism Relevant to the Modern World?' in Japanese Journal of Religious Studies 1987 14/2-3. Source: Nanzan Univ.; accessed: Saturday August 16, 2008. p.247
From the city of Ningbo (then called Míngzhōu 明州), Saichō was introduced by the governor to Daosui (道邃), who was the seventh Tiantai patriarch, and later he journeyed to Tiantai Mountain for further study. (2025). 9780824823719, Hawaii University Press. ISBN 9780824823719 After receiving teachings and initiations on Chan Buddhism, Precepts and Chinese Esoteric Buddhism, Saichō devoted much of his time to making accurate copies of Tiantai texts and studying under Dàosuì. By the sixth month of 805, Saichō had returned to Japan along with the official mission to China.Hazama Jikō “Dengyo Daishi's Life and Teachings” in “The Characteristics of Japanese Tendai.” Japanese Journal of Religious Studies 14/2-3 (1987): 101-112. Saichō was also influenced by his study of Huayan (Jp. Kegon) philosophy under Gyōhyō 行表 (720–797) and this was his initial training before going to China.Forte, Victor. Saichō: Founding Patriarch of Japanese Buddhism In Gereon Kopf (ed.), The Dao Companion to Japanese Buddhist Philosophy. Springer. pp. 307–335 (2019)
Because of the Imperial Court's interest in Tiantai as well as esoteric Buddhism, Saichō quickly rose in prominence upon his return. He was asked by Emperor Kanmu (735–806) to perform various esoteric rituals, and Saichō also sought recognition from the Emperor for a new, independent Tendai school in Japan. Because the emperor sought to reduce the power of the Hossō school, he granted this request, but with the stipulation that the new "Tendai" school would have two programs: one for esoteric Buddhism and one for exoteric Buddhist practice.
The new Tendai school was therefore based on a combination of the doctrinal and meditative system of Zhiyi with esoteric Buddhist practice and texts. Tendai learning at Mount Hiei traditionally followed two curriculums:
However, Emperor Kanmu died shortly thereafter, and Saichō was not allocated any ordinands until 809 with the reign of Emperor Saga. Saichō's choice of establishing his community at Mount Hiei also proved fortuitous because it was located at the northeast of the new capital of Kyoto and thus was auspicious in terms of feng shui as the city's protector. (2025). 9780824823719, Hawaii University Press. ISBN 9780824823719
Saichō also studied esoteric Buddhism under Kūkai, the founder of the Shingon Buddhism school. Saichō borrowed esoteric texts from Kūkai for copying and they also exchanged letters for some time. However, they eventually had a falling out (in around 816) over their understanding of Buddhist esotericism. This was because Saichō attempted to integrate esoteric Buddhism ( mikkyo) into his broader Tendai schema, seeing esoteric Buddhism as equal to the Tendai Lotus Sutra teaching. Saichō would write that Tendai and Mikkyo "interfuse with one another" and that "there should be no such thing as preferring one to the other." Meanwhile, Kūkai saw mikkyo as different from and fully superior to kengyo (exoteric Buddhism) and was also concerned that Saichō had not finished his esoteric studies personally under him.Ryuichi Abe. "Saichō and Kūkai: A Conflict of Interpretations." Japanese Journal of Religious Studies 1995 22/1-2
Saichō's efforts were also devoted to developing a Mahāyāna ordination platform that required the Bodhisattva Precepts of the Brahmajala Sutra only, and not the pratimokṣa code of the Dharmaguptaka vinaya, which was traditionally used in East Asian Buddhist monasticism. Saichō saw the precepts of the small vehicle ( hinayana) as no longer being necessary. His ideas were attacked by the more traditional Nara schools as well as the Sōgō (the Office of Monastic Affairs) and they were not initially approved by the imperial court. Saichō wrote the Kenkairon to respond to their criticisms. By the time that Saichō died in 822, his yearly petition was finally granted and the traditional "Four Part Vinaya" () was replaced by the Tendai Bodhisattva Precepts.
By 864, Tendai monks were now appointed to the powerful sōgō "Office of Monastic Affairs" with the naming of An'e (安慧) as the provisional vinaya master. Other examples include Enchin's appointment to the Office of Monastic Affairs in 883. While Saichō had opposed the Office during his lifetime, within a few generations disciples were now gifted with positions in the Office by the Imperial Family. By this time, Japanese Buddhism was dominated by the Tendai school to a much greater degree than Chinese Buddhism was by its forebear, the Tiantai.
After Saichō, the Tendai order underwent efforts to deepen its understanding of teachings collected by the founder, particularly esoteric Buddhism. Saichō had only received initiation in the Diamond Realm Mandala, and since the rival Shingon school under Kūkai had received deeper training, early Tendai monks felt it necessary to return to China for further initiation and instruction. Saichō's disciple Ennin went to China in 838 and returned ten years later with a more thorough understanding of esoteric, Pure Land, and Tiantai teachings. Ennin brought important esoteric texts and initiation lineages, such as the Susiddhikāra-sūtra, the Mahāvairocana-sūtra and Vajraśekhara-sūtra.
However, in later years, this range of teachings began to form sub-schools within Tendai Buddhism. By the time of Ryōgen, there were two distinct groups on Mt. Hiei, the Jimon and Sanmon: the Sammon-ha "Mountain Group" (山門派) followed Ennin and the Jimon-ha "Temple Group" (寺門派) followed Enchin. (2025). 9780824872489, University of Hawaii Press. ISBN 9780824872489
Konryū Daishi Sōō (831–918), a student of Ennin, is another influential Tendai figure. He is known for developing the ascetic practice circumambulating Mt. Hiei, living and practicing in the remote wilderness. This practice, which became associated with Acala (Acala) and Sōō's hermitage at Mudō- ji, became quite influential in Tendai. A more elaborate and systematized practice based on Sōō's simple mountain asceticism developed over time, and came to be called kaihōgyō (回峰行). This remains an important part of Tendai Buddhism today.Rhodes, Robert F. “ The Kaihogyo Practice of Mt. Hiei.” Japanese Journal of Religious Studies 14/2-3 (1987): 185-202.
Akaku Daishi Annen (841–902?) is one of the most important post-Saichō Tendai thinkers. He wrote around a hundred works on Tendai doctrine and practice.Dolce, Lucia; Mano, Shinya (2011). Godai'in Annen. Leiden: Brill NV. p. 770. According to Annen's theory of the "four ones" ( shiichi kyōhan 四一教判), all Buddhas are ultimately a single Buddha, all temporal moments are one moment, all Pure Lands are also just one Pure Land, and all teachings are interfused into one teaching.Dolce, Lucia; Mano, Shinya (2011). Godai'in Annen. Leiden: Brill NV. p. 771.
According to Lucia Dolce, Annen "systematized earlier and contemporary doctrines elaborated in both streams of Japanese esoteric Buddhism, Tōmitsu (i.e., Shingon) and Taimitsu (Tendai)", "critically reinterpreted Kūkai's thought, offering new understandings of crucial esoteric concepts and rituals", and he also "elaborated theories that were to become emblematic of Japanese Buddhism, such as the realization of buddhahood by grasses and trees ( sōmoku jōbutsu)" as well as hongaku shisō thought.
These various post-Saichō Tendai figures also developed the Tendai doctrine of "the identity of the purport of Perfect and Esoteric teachings" ( enmitsu itchi 円密一致) which according to Ōkubo Ryōshun "refers to the harmony and agreement between the Perfect teachings of the Lotus Sutra and Esoteric Buddhism."Ōkubo Ryōshun 大久保良峻. “The Identity between the Purport of the Perfect and Esoteric Teachings.” Japanese Journal of Religious Studies 41/1 (2014): 83–102.
Ryōgen's most influential disciples where Genshin ( Eshin sōzu 942-1017) and Kakuun ( Dannasōzu 957-1007). The lineages of these two figures developed into two main sects within Tendai, the Eshin school and the Danna school respectively. According to Shōshin Ichishima "Genshin's Eshin school espoused the doctrine of the original enlightenment, while Kakuun's Danna school espoused that of acquired enlightenment. The Eshinryū school used the ninth consciousness as the basis of meditation, whereas the Dannaryū used the sixth consciousness in the Yogachara consciousness system. The Eshinryū school valued oral transmission of doctrine and meditative insight, while Dannaryū emphasized doctrine and texts. The Eshinryū school favored the "origin teaching" ( honmon), and the latter fourteen chapters of the Lotus Sūtra over the "trace teaching" ( shakumon), the first fourteen chapters, while the Dannaryū school regarded both sections as equally important. These differences distinguish the two schools."
Genshin (942–1017), an influential student of Ryōgen, wrote the famous Ōjōyōshū 往生要集 ("Essentials of Birth in the Pure Land"), a treatise on Pure Land practice which influenced later Pure Land Japanese figures.Stone, Jacqueline Ilyse (1999). Original Enlightenment and the Transformation of Medieval Japanese Buddhism. Honolulu, Hawaii: University of Hawaii Press. p. 118. . His work built upon the foundational ideas established by earlier monks like Senkan, emphasizing Pure Land practice as a viable and effective path toward enlightenment. Genshin's approach integrated these earlier teachings, presenting Pure Land birth as a powerful tool for advancing along the bodhisattva path in the quest for buddhahood. Genshin would later become a key figure for Japanese Pure Land teachers like Hōnen.
In response to the perceived Secularity and elitism of the powerful Tendai school, a number of low-ranking Tendai monks became dissatisfied and began to teach radical new doctrines which focused on simpler and more popular practices. The major figures of "New Kamakura period Buddhism" like Nichiren, Hōnen, Shinran, Eisai and Dōgen, were all initially trained as Tendai monks. Tendai practices and monastic organization were adopted to some degree or another by each of these new schools, but one common feature of each school was a more narrowly focused set of practices (e.g. daimoku for the Nichiren school, zazen for Zen, nianfo for Pure Land schools, etc.) in contrast to the more integrated approach of the Tendai. In spite of the rise of these new competing schools which saw Tendai as being "corrupt", medieval Tendai remained "a rich, varied, and thriving tradition" during the medieval period according to Jacqueline Stone.
Initially, the largest and most popular of these new traditions—Pure Land Buddhism and Nichiren Buddhism—did not attempt create new "schools" or "sects" separate from Tendai, as many of their monastics continued to be ordained and trained in Tendai institutions. Over time however, these groups gradually differentiated themselves from the Tendai mainstream, eventually forming separate institutions. As a number of new sects began to develop during the Kamakura period, the Tendai school used its patronage to try to oppose the growth of these rival factions. The Tendai establishment often used brigades of sōhei (warrior monks) to repress these groups as well as drawing on their political influence. In one such event, Tendai warrior monks destroyed the printing blocks of Hōnen's Senchakushū and raided the tomb of Hōnen . (2025). 9781611808902, Shambhala. ISBN 9781611808902Jodo Shu Research Institute. The 4 Eras of Honen's Disciples Despite internal divisions, the Tendai establishment remained politically and militarily powerful throughout the Kamakura Period. Enryaku-ji maintained its network of warrior monks (sōhei) and its influence at the imperial court and among the aristocracy, even while internal divisions led to increasing doctrinal and institutional disputes.
Kamakura period Tendai also produced a number of important figures of its own, including Jien 慈圓 (1155–1225), known as a historian and a poet, who wrote the Gukanshō (a religious history of Japan) and numerous devotional poems.Morrell, Robert E. Early Kamakura Buddhism: A Minority Report. Nanzan Institute for Religion and Culture, 1987. Hōjibō Shōshin 寶地房證眞 (active 1153–1214) was a major Buddhist intellectual in medieval Japanese Buddhism and the head of the Tendai curriculum at Mount Hiei. Shōshin wrote numerous works and commentaries, and is most known for his commentaries on the writings of Zhiyi, the Personal Notes on the Three Major Works of Tendai (Tendai sandaibu shiki 天台三大部私記). This is "the most detailed study on Tendai doctrine until the twentieth century", according to Matthew Don McMullen.McMullen, Matthew Don (2016). The Development of Esoteric Buddhist Scholasticism in Early Medieval Japan. University of California, Berkeley. Shōshin also wrote on esoteric Buddhism, which he interpreted in line with classical Tiantai doctrine, instead of seeing it as a separate form of Buddhism. Shōshin rejected the view that esoteric or Vajrayana ( shingon) Buddhism was superior to the Tendai Mahāyāna teaching of the one vehicle.McMullen, Matthew Don (2016). The Development of Esoteric Buddhist Scholasticism in Early Medieval Japan. University of California, Berkeley. p. 223.
During this time, some Tendai figures sought to revive the fractured tradition in various ways. One such figure was Shinsei 眞盛 (1443–1495), who emphasized the practice of nembutsu.Payne, Richard K. Shinzei's Discourse on Practicing the Samadhi of Meditating on the Buddha. Pacific World Journal New Series Number 7 Fall 1991
During the Sengoku period, the power of Enryaku-ji was directly challenged by Oda Nobunaga. In 1571, seeking to break the political and military power of Buddhist institutions, Nobunaga launched a brutal assault on Mount Hiei, burning Enryaku-ji and massacring thousands of monks and laypeople. This event severely weakened Tendai's influence and authority, though its doctrines and traditions persisted in smaller temples and through its connection with the imperial lineage.
During this period, one of the most important Tendai leaders was Tenkai (1536–1643). Tenkai helped restore the school's prestige by securing Tokugawa patronage, linking Tendai to the ideology of the shogunate and building new temples like Kita-in, and Kan'ei-ji near Tokyo, the new seat of the Tokugawa shogunate. Tenkai also worked to print and publish the entire Chinese Buddhist Canon. Completed in 1648, this edition became known as the Kan'ei-ji Edition (or Tenkai Edition). This printing project is considered one of the most significant achievements in Japanese printing history. Tendai scholars also engaged in doctrinal debates with the emerging Ōbaku Zen school, which introduced new influences from China.
One of the most prominent Tendai figures of the 20th century was Shōchō Hagami (1903–1989). He served as President of the Japanese Religious Committee for World Federation and was a great practitioner of extenseive Kaihōgyō.Shocho Hagami, Kaihogyo No Kokoro (Kyoto: Shunju, 1996); Ichijo Miyamoto and Taisho Yokoyama, eds., Zansho (Otsu: Zenpon Sha, 1990), esp. 372-74. Hagami, along with Etai Yamada (1900–1999) were two major Tendai figures of the 20th century who widely promoted religious dialogue with other world religions and traveled widely.
Today, the Tendai school remains active, with Enryaku-ji serving as its headquarters. While no longer a dominant force in Japanese Buddhism, it continues to influence various traditions through its doctrinal legacy and training system. Tendai temples in Japan and abroad promote both traditional monastic practice and lay-oriented teachings.
In the major Tendai institutions like Taisho University and Mount Hiei, the main subjects of study are the Lotus Sutra, the works of the Tiantai Patriarch Zhiyi, the works of the founder Saichō and some later Tendai figures like Ennin.Covell, Stephen G. Learning to Persevere The Popular Teachings of Tendai Ascetics Japanese Journal of Religious Studies 31/2: 255–287 © 2004 Nanzan Institute for Religion and Culture.
Saichō taught that there were "three kinds of Lotus Sutra". According to Jacqueline Stone, these can be explained as follows:Stone, Jacqueline (1999). Inclusive and Exclusive Perspectives on the One Vehicle
Stone writes that Saichō saw all Buddhist teachings as being the true " Lotus Sutra" and he therefore attempted to integrate all Buddhist teachings he had studied within a single framework based on the Lotus Sutra
Hazama Jikō writes that the central feature of Tendai thought is its advocacy of the "One Great Perfect Teaching" (一大円教), "the idea that all the teachings of the Buddha are ultimately without contradiction and can be unified in one comprehensive and perfect system." This idea was used by Saichō as a basis for his integration of the various schools of Buddhism into a single comprehensive synthesis. Hazama writes that "Saichō included both esoteric and exoteric teachings, and avoided an obsession with any one category of the Buddhist tradition such as Zen or the precepts. He sought instead to unite all of these elements on the basis of a single fundamental principle, the comprehensive and unifying ekayana spirit of the Lotus Sutra."
Saichō believed that by consolidating all Buddhist ideas and practices and including all the varieties of Buddhism, his new school would allow all to "enter the great sea of Thusness which has a single flavor" (真如一味の大海) by following the path of goodness and that this would protect the nation. According to Hazama Jikō "these themes run throughout Saichō's work" including his Hokke shuku 法華秀 句 and Shugo kokkai sho 守護国界章.
Later Tendai thinkers like Annen provided a new doctrinal classification system (based on Zhiyi's system) for Japanese Tendai. All Buddhist teachings are seen as being included into the following categories. The first major group are those teachings that rely on the three vehicles:
The highest teachings are those who derive from the one vehicle:
Another element of Tendai buddha-nature thought was the notion that the phenomenal world, the world of our experiences, fundamentally is an expression of the Dharma. Tendai Buddhism claims that each and every sense phenomenon just as it is is the expression of Dharma. This idea comes from Zhanran view of buddha nature as an all-pervasive reality that also includes insentient things (like mountains, rivers etc). Drawing on this, Saichō also argued that insentient things possess Buddha-nature and that the distinction between sentient and insentient is ultimately illusory, since buddha-nature pervades all things through the principle of mutual inclusion, in which each Dharmadhatu contains all others. Thus for Saichō ultimate reality, the Dharmakaya, actively manifests in the phenomenal world as the world itself.
Stone writes that the medieval Tendai doctrine regards "enlightenment or the ideal state as inherent from the outset and as accessible in the present, rather than as the fruit of a long process of cultivation."Stone, Jacqueline Ilyse (2003). Original enlightenment and the transformation of medieval Japanese Buddhism. Issue 12 of Studies in East Asian Buddhism. A Kuroda Institute book: University of Hawaii Press. . Source: [14] (accessed: Thursday April 22, 2010), p.3 Scholars also refer to the doctrinal system associated with this idea as "original enlightenment thought". Stone defines this as the "array of doctrines and concepts associated with the proposition that all beings are enlightened inherently." According to Stone, as these teachings developed, they grew to include the idea that:
Not only human beings, but ants and crickets, mountains and rivers, grasses and trees are all innately Buddhas. The Buddhas who appear in sutras, radiating light and endowed with excellent marks, are merely provisional signs. The "real" Buddha is the ordinary worldling. Indeed, the whole phenomenal world is the primordially enlightened Tathāgata.Tamura Yoshirō argued that hongaku was a Nondualism teaching which saw all existents as interpenetrating and mutually identified. This negates any ontological difference between Buddhas and common people as well as between pure lands and mundane worlds. Tamura argued that this move re-affirms the relative phenomenal world as an expression of the ultimate nondual reality and is found in phrases like "the worldly passions are precisely enlightenment" and "birth and death are precisely nirvana". These lineages also transmitted their teachings through transmission rituals which made use of mirrors to illustrate nonduality and the interpenetration of all phenomena.
Hongaku teachings were passed down through various exoteric teaching lineages (which often involved secrecy), the largest of which were the Eshin-ryu and the Danna-ryu. At the core of these doctrinal systems was the Tendai practice of the "threefold contemplation in a single thought" (isshin sangan 一心 三観) which is taught in Zhiyi's Mohezhiguan. According to Stone, this practice is based on seeing "that all phenomena are empty of substance, provisionally existing, and the middle, or both empty and provisionally existing simultaneously."
While certain scholars have seen hongaku thought as denying the need for Buddhist practice, Stone notes that Tendai hongaku based texts like the Shinnyokan 真 如 観 (Contemplation of true suchness) and the Shuzenji-ketsu 修 禅 守 伏 (Decisions of Hsiuch’an-ssu) deny this idea. Instead, these texts teach various kinds of Buddhist practices, including nenbutsu, contemplation of emptiness (kukan 空観), meditations using Buddhist icons and mirrors, practicing the threefold contemplation in the midst of daily activities and recitation of the daimoku during when one is approaching death.
Hongaku thought was also influential on the development of New Kamakura Buddhism and the founders of these schools, though they had their own unique understandings. However, not all Tendai thinkers embraced hongaku thought. For example, the more conservative commentator Hōjibō Shōshin criticized hongaku ideas as a denial of causality.
However, the influence of esoteric Buddhism and the need to compete with the Shingon Buddhism school led Tendai scholars to continue to explore ways to "shorten the path" and attain Buddhahood swiftly in one lifetime. Later Tendai scholars like Rinshō, and Annen were much more optimistic about sokushin jōbutsu, claiming certain esoteric practices could lead to Buddhahood rapidly in only one lifetime, while de-emphasizing the concern with achieving Buddhahood in future lives. They also further extended the application of this idea to individuals at the lower levels of the degrees of identity, arguing that one could jump over bodhisattva stages and attain Buddhahood without fully eradicating defilements. This idea, known as "realization by worldlings" (bon'i jōbutsu), posited that practitioners could gain Buddha-wisdom through the power of the Buddha's presence and the Taimitsu esoteric practices. According to Groner, this allowed "for the possibility that worldlings who still have some of the coarser defilements might experience sokushin jōbutsu."
Other Tendai figures like Hōjibō Shōshin (1136–1220 or 1131–1215), an important Tendai commentator on Zhiyi's works, were more traditional and critical of ideas concerning the rapid realization of Buddhahood for everyone (without outright denying the possibility of Buddhahood in this body). For Shōshin, sokushin jōbutsu applied to those who had "superior religious faculties" because they "have previously practiced the various provisional teachings" in many previous lives.
The theory influenced the understanding of sacred figures at Enryaku-ji and Hiyoshi Taisha (now Hiyoshi Taisha). Additionally, the honji suijaku concept contributed to reimagining Mount Hiei's geographical landscape as a symbolic cosmology. This is reflected in the Hie Sannō maṇḍala, which visually illustrates the two-tiered structure by positioning buddhas above Mount Hiei and corresponding deities below. The integration of Esoteric Buddhism with local religious practices ultimately resulted in the formation of Sannō Shintō, a distinct Shintō tradition associated with Mount Hiei. This tradition developed within the dual institution formed by Enryakuji and Hie Shrine.
The primary textual foundation of the Tendai school is the Threefold Lotus Sūtra (Japanese: Hokke-kyō), which is regarded as the supreme teaching of the Buddha and the main scriptural authority of the Tendai tradition. In addition to the Lotus Sutra, the Tendai curriculum includes several other key Indic sources which are used to support the Lotus Sutra which are : the Daichido-ron (Great Wisdom Treatise), the Mahāparinirvāṇa Sūtra (Jp: Daihatsunehan-kyō), the Prajñāpāramitā Sūtra in 25000 slokas ( Daihannya-kyō) and the Book of the Original Acts that Adorn the Bodhisattva ( Bosatsu Yōraku Hongyō Kyō, T. 24, No. 1485). Other sutras are also studied, such as the Brahmajāla Sūtra ( Bonmō-kyō), which provides the school with its bodhisattva precepts.
There are also numerous Chinese Tiantai Treatises studied in Tendai Buddhism. The writings of the Chinese Tiantai patriarch Zhiyi (538–597) are also central. Three key works: Mohe Zhiguan (摩訶止観), Profound Meaning of the Lotus Sutra ( Hokke Gengi, 法華玄義), and Words and Phrases of the Lotus Sutra ( Hokke Mongu, 法華文句) — form the core of Tendai scholastic study. These are always read with the commentaries by Zhanran. Another important work by Zhiyi for Tendai is the Commentary on the Meaning of the Bodhisattva Precepts, which is a key work for novices seeking to understand the Tendai approach to the precepts. There are also various other works which are important, including other works by Zhiyi, Zhanran and Siming Zhili.
Regarding Japanese sources, the works of Saichō, especially his works on the bodhisattva precepts like the Kenkairon (Clarifying the Precepts), are central to the Tendai understanding of ordination and precepts.
Apart from these sources, the Tendai school also maintains a tradition of Vajrayana (Taimitsu, Mikkyō). The key esoteric scriptures in the Tendai esoteric curriculum are: Vairocanābhisaṃbodhi Sūtra ( Dainichi Kyō), Vajrasekhara Sūtra ( Kongōchōkyō), and the Susiddhikara Sūtra ( Soshitsujikara-kyō). These are read alongside various traditional commentaries by Yi Xing, Ennin, Enchin and Annen.
Under the umbrella of the Lotus Sutra, Tendai integrates four main aspects of Mahayana Buddhist practice. This is often described with the compound En-Mitsu-Zen-Kai (圓密禪戒 “Perfect-Secret-Meditation-Precepts”). To these four key elements, the Pure Land Dharma Gate is often added. The main elements of Tendai practice are thus:
According to Saichō and other later Tendai scholars, the Perfect teaching of the Lotus Sutra and the tantric doctrines and practices of Esoteric Buddhism had the same ultimate intent. This view of the equality and compatibility between the Tiantai Lotus teachings and Esoteric Buddhism was important for Saichō.Gardiner, David L. (2019). Tantric Buddhism in Japan: Kūkai and Saichō. Unlike the Shingon Buddhism founder Kūkai, Saichō did not see esoteric teachings as more powerful or superior to exoteric Tendai teaching and practice. Instead, Saichō held that all Buddhist teachings are included in the single intent of the Lotus Sutra. This idea is reflected in the saying "Shingon (esoteric Buddhism) and (Tien-tai) shikan are essentially one; therefore both traditions are propagated on one mountain" (from Shōshin's Tendai Shingon nishii doi sho).
Certain later Tendai figures like Ennin also argued that esoteric practices led to Buddhahood faster than exoteric (non-esoteric) practices and some (such as Annen) argued that they were the only way to full Buddhahood. These figures also often saw the Lotus Sutra (which refers itself as "the secret essential of the buddhas" and "the secret treasure of the Tathagatha") as an esoteric text and this view has some precedent in the Chinese Tiantai tradition.
The Four-fold Samādhi (四種三昧 shishu-zammai) is outlined as follows: Four forms of meditation ［四種三昧］ Nichiren Buddhism Library
However, both meditation on the Pure Land ( kansō nenbutsu 観想念仏) and recitation of the Buddha's name ( shōmyō nenbutsu 称名念仏) became an integral part of Pure Land practices in the Tendai tradition. In addition to the five-tone nembutsu brought back from China, Ennin also integrated a special monastic training program called the originally promulgated by Zhiyi. In this practice, monks spend 90 days in retreat, circumambulating a statue of Amitābha constantly reciting his name.
In addition to increasing monastic practices related to the Pure Land, monks also taught Pure Land practices to the lay community in the form of reciting the Buddha's name. The most famous of these was a monk named Kūya (空也, 903–972).
Pure Land Buddhist thought was further developed by a Tendai monk named Genshin (源信, 942–1017) who was a disciple of Ryōgen, the 18th chief abbot or zasu (座主) of Mount Hiei. Genshin wrote an influential treatise called "The Essentials of Rebirth in the Pure Land", which vividly contrasted the Sukhavati Pure Land of Amitābha with the descriptions of the hell realms in Buddhism. Further, Genshin promoted the popular notion of the Latter Age of the Dharma, which posited that society had degenerated to a point when they could no longer rely on traditional Buddhist practices, and would instead need to rely solely on Amitābha's grace to escape saṃsāra. Genshin drew upon past Chinese Pure Land teachers such as Daochuo and Shandao.
Finally, Pure Land practices in Tendai were further popularized by former Tendai monk Hōnen, who established the first independent Pure Land school, the Jōdo-shū, and whose disciples carried the teachings to remote provinces in one form or another. This includes another ex-Tendai monk named Shinran, who eventually established the related Jōdo Shinshū.
The origins of Taimitsu are found in Chinese Esoteric Buddhism. As a result, Tendai esoteric ritual bears much in common with Shingon Buddhism, though some of the underlying doctrines and practices differ. Regarding textual basis, while Shingon mainly uses the Mahavairocana Tantra and the Vajrasekhara Sutra (seeing these as the highest and most superior texts), Tendai uses a larger corpus of texts, including the Lotus Sutra and esoteric Lotus Sutra texts. Other differences mainly relate to lineages and outlook. There are several lineages of Taimitsu, the main ones being the Sanmon 山門 (Mountain branch of Ennin's lineage, which has a further 13 sub-branches) and Jimon 寺門 (Temple branch of Enchin's lineage, which is more unified).
According to Linda Dolce, "Saichō regarded esoteric Buddhism as equal to the Lotus-based Buddhist system that had been developed in China by Tiantai, as both embodied the soteriological idea of 'one vehicle'". Later Taimitsu scholars, like Ennin, classified esoteric scriptures into two types: those containing the principles of esoteric Buddhism (i.e. the non-duality of ultimate truth and worldly truth) were called rimitsu, and those that teach the principles and practices (i.e. the three mysteries) were called riji gumitsu. The first category was initially said to include the Nirvana, Lotus Sutra, Vimalakīrti, and Huayan sūtras, all of which were seen as esoteric in principle. The second category includes the tantric scriptures like the Mahavairocana, Vajrasekhara, the Susiddhikāra Sūtra ( Soshitsujikara), the Pudichang jing 菩提場経 ( Bodaijō kyō, T. 950), and the Yuqi jing 瑜祇経 ( Yugi kyō, T. 867). Some Tendai scholars like Annen even elevated the esoteric teachings further, seeing them as the highest teachings of the Buddha, and the only way to enlightenment. According to Paul Groner, this view subordinated the Lotus Sutra to the esoteric scriptures. According to Dolce, Annen "displaced other practices existent in Tendai as soteriologically incomplete practices", and turned esoteric rituals into the very embodiments of the ultimate truth (rather than just another type of Upaya).
This view was not accepted by all Tendai lineages however, and later figures like Hōjibō Shōshin (fl. 1153–1214) rejected the idea that esoteric practice was higher or superior to Tendai Mahayana practice (as taught in the Mohe Zhiguan), since both of these traditions are ultimately founded on the middle way and both teach the contemplation of the emptiness of dharmas. Shōshin held that mantras and other esoteric practices were merely another Upaya for contemplating the middle way, and thus, the exoteric and esoteric were just different expressions of the same principle. Shōshin also argued that these teachings both derive from the same Buddha, since Vairocana and the Buddha of the Lotus Sūtra are ultimately the same.McMullen, Matthew Don (2016). The Development of Esoteric Buddhist Scholasticism in Early Medieval Japan. University of California, Berkeley. pp. 225-226. In some cases, Shōshin goes further, arguing that certain esoteric practices, such as those that make use of images like Mandala or lunar discs, were designed for those with dull faculties, while the Tendai practice of "discerning one's own mind" (Jp. kanjin, 觀心) is for those who are more advanced and do not require images.McMullen, Matthew Don (2016). The Development of Esoteric Buddhist Scholasticism in Early Medieval Japan. University of California, Berkeley. pp. 227-228.
Later Tendai developments would also make the Lotus Sutra a full "Practice Esotericism" ( Jimitsu) sutra through the development of esoteric practices and texts that placed the Lotus on the same level as the tantrism of the Mahavairocana sutra.Lucia Dolce, "The Lotus Sutra and Esoteric Buddhism," The Lotus Sutra and Japanese Culture. ルチア・ドルチェ「法華経と密教」『法華経と日本文化』、大正大学出版会. To defend this view, Tendai scholars pointed to passages in the Lotus Sutra itself, such as when the sutra refers to itself as "the secret essential of the buddhas" and "the secret treasure of the Thus-Come One". They also relied on the interpretations of Yi Xing.
Tendai monks developed these esoteric Lotus practices further, one of the most important ones being the Lotus Ritual (Hokke Hō), which combined recitations of the Lotus Sutra with esoteric mantras and visualizations. These rituals center on reciting and contemplating the "Life Span of the Tathāgata" chapter and on visualizing Prabhutaratna and Śākyamuni in a mandala (along with mudras and mantras). Both Buddhas became equated with Vairocana (of the Vairocanābhisaṃbodhi Sūtra), corresponding to the two aspects of Mahāvairocana embodied in the Diamond Realm and Womb Realm Maṇḍalas respectively. The rite also relies on the use of mantras and dhāraṇīs, including the Dharani taught in the Lotus Sutra, the daimoku (the Lotus Sutra
The Lotus rite's visual focus is the Lotus Sutra Mandala ( Hokkekyo mandara 法華経曼荼羅), which is rooted in an esoteric interpretation of the Lotus Sūtra, specifically the chapter concerning the Treasure Stūpa where Śākyamuni and Prabhūtaratna sit side by side. Its design features an eight-petaled lotus, a motif adapted from the Womb Realm. The maṇḍala's structure, which arranges deities hierarchically around a central focus, draws on the dual-realm maṇḍalas of Esoteric Buddhism, and symbolizes the non-duality of the Lotus Sutra with the mantrayana teaching. A unique element of Tendai esotericism is the concept of unifying the dual-realm maṇḍalas (and the teachings of their respective tantric scriptures) through a third element which was associated with the Susiddhikara sūtra. This interpretation was also understood through the Tendai doctrine of the three truths. The third element of susiddhi (perfect realization) was considered to be like the third truth of the middle, the Nondualism unity of the reality of the dual-world mandalas. Since the Susiddhikara sūtra did not teach a specific mandala, the Lotus mandala was often used to represent this third esoteric truth. In the Lotus mandala, the stūpa represents the Trikaya (dharmakāya), Prabhūtaratna corresponds to the Retribution body (Trikaya), and Śākyamuni aligns with the Manifestation body (nirmanakāya). The central court is identified with Dainichi of the Vajradhātu Maṇḍala, while the eight bodhisattvas correspond to the Eight Worthies of the Garbhadhātu Maṇḍala's eight-petaled lotus. In this interpretation, Śākyamuni is associated with Dainichi of the Garbhadhātu, Prabhūtaratna with Dainichi of the Vajradhātu, and the stūpa itself symbolizes the principle of susiddhi, representing a synthesis including all elements of both mandalas.
The bodhisattva precepts in Tendai are all said to rely on three types of sanjujokai:
The first category includes the prohibitions against the ten major and forty-eight minor transgressions as explained in the Bonmokyo 梵辋経 (T24, 997–1010). It also includes general restrictions against any kind of evil activity, whether physical, verbal, or mental. Any and all kinds of moral cultivation are included. The second category entails every kind of good activity, including but not limited to acts associated with the Buddhist categories of keeping precepts, the practice of concentration (samadhi), and the cultivation of wisdom. Also included are such worldly pursuits as dedication to scholarly excellence, or any effort aimed at self improvement. The third category refers not only to the effort to help and save all sentient beings through the perfection of the six Mahayana virtues (paramita, charity, morality, patience, diligence, meditation, and wisdom), but also includes such mundane activity as raising one's children with loving care, living for the sake of others, and dedicating oneself to the good of society.The Tendai school made extensive use of the Lotus Sutra in its interpretation of the bodhisattva precepts, even though the sutra does not itself contains a specific list of precepts. Also, various passages from the sutra were used to defend the Tendai position not to follow the pratimoksha, since they state, for example, "we will not follow śrāvaka ways."Groner, Paul. The Lotus Sutra and the Perfect-Sudden Precepts. Japanese Journal of Religious Studies 41/1: 103–131 © 2014 Nanzan Institute for Religion and Culture.
Saichō’s rejection of the Hīnayāna vinaya precepts stemmed from his understanding of the Lotus Sutra as the ultimate expression of the Buddha's teachings. In his biography, Eizan Daishi den, Saichō expressed his commitment to abandoning the 250 Hīnayāna precepts and focused on the bodhisattva path. His interpretation of the Lotus Sutra, particularly in the "Comfortable Practices" chapter, provided a basis for rejecting śrāvaka practices and precepts. Saichō’s reforms eventually led to the development of the "Perfect-Sudden Precepts", which emphasized the inherent Buddha-nature in all beings and allowed for a more flexible approach to monastic discipline.Groner, Paul. Saicho: The Establishment of the Japanese Tendai School. Berkeley: Berkeley Buddhist Studies Series, 1984.
The bodhisattva precepts were thus seen in Tendai as being based on the Lotus Sutra's teaching that all beings have the potential for Buddhahood and that they have a fundamental goodness, or Buddha-nature. This was the fundamental ethical teaching for Tendai thought. Saichō also believed that the world had entered the age of Dharma decline ( mappō) and that because of this, the Hinayana precepts were no longer able to be practiced and no longer needed. He also believed that the Japanese people were naturally inclined to the Mahayana Buddhism. Because of this, Saichō argued that only Mahayana precepts were needed.
Some of Saichō's views on Mahayana precepts were drawn from the Tiantai masters Nanyue Huisi and Daosui and the teachings Chan masters like Bodhidharma, Dao-xuan (Dōsen, especially his commentary on the Brahmā's Net Sūtra) and Dayi Daoxin (Dōshin , particularly his "Manual of Rules of Bodhisattva Precepts"). These Chinese Chan masters emphasized formless practice (無相行) or attribute-less practice also known as anrakugyō (Ch. anlexing 安樂行, serene and pleasing activities), both in Chan meditation and in precept training. This refers to a way of contemplation that applies in all activities.Lin, Pei‐Yin (2011) Precepts and lineage in Chan tradition: cross‐cultural perspectives in ninth century East Asia, p. 158. PhD Thesis. SOAS, University of London http://eprints.soas.ac.uk/14241 These various Chinese ideas about the integration of practice and precepts were integrated into Saichō's view of the "Perfect and Sudden Precepts" ( Endonkai).Lin, Pei‐Yin (2011) Precepts and lineage in Chan tradition: cross‐cultural perspectives in ninth century East Asia, p. 166. PhD Thesis. SOAS, University of London http://eprints.soas.ac.uk/14241
During the Kamakura and Muromachi periods, Tendai monks such as Ninkū (1307–1388) and Annen (841–?) further developed the concept of the Perfect-Sudden Precepts. Annen, for example, argued that the precepts were rooted in the non-dual nature of reality, suggesting that even actions traditionally considered evil could be seen as expressions of the precepts if performed with the right intention. This interpretation, while controversial, highlighted the Tendai emphasis on the transformative power of the Lotus Sutra and its ability to reveal the ultimate truth of the Buddha's teachings.
Sannō Shintō 山王神道 was a specifically Tendai branch of syncretic Buddhist-Shinto religious practice, which revered kamis called the Mountain Kings (Sannō) or Sanno Sansei 山王三聖 (The Three Sacred Deities of Sanno) and was based on Hiyoshi Taisha 日吉大社 a shrine on Mount Hiei. The Togakushi Shrine (戸隠神社, Togakushi Jinja) was also associated with the Tendai school before it was separated from Buddhist institutions by the Japanese state during Shinbutsu bunri in the 19th century.
These religious ideas eventually led to the development of a Japanese current of thought called honji suijaku (本地垂迹), which argued that kami are simply local manifestations (the suijaku or "traces") of the Buddhas ( honji, "true nature"). This manifestation of the Buddhas was explained through the classic Mahayana doctrines of Upaya and the Trikaya.
However, later Mahayana views developed a different emphasis which embraced all the arts. In Japan, certain Buddhist rituals (which were also performed in Tendai) grew to include music and dance, and these became very popular with the people.Groner, Paul (2002). Ryōgen and Mount Hiei: Japanese Tendai in the Tenth Century, p. 208. University of Hawaii Press. Doctrinally, these performative arts were seen as Upaya of teaching Buddhism. Monks specializing in such arts were called yūsō ("artistic monks").Deal, William E.; Ruppert, Brian (2015). A Cultural History of Japanese Buddhism, pp. 100-104. John Wiley & Sons. . The writing of religious poetry was also a major pursuit among certain Tendai as well as Shingon figures, like the Shingon priest Shukaku and the Tendai monk Jien (1155–1225). These poets met together to discuss poetry in poetry circles ( kadan).Deal, William E.; Ruppert, Brian (2015). A Cultural History of Japanese Buddhism, pp. 104-106. John Wiley & Sons. . According to Deal and Ruppert, "Shingon, Tendai and Nara cloisters had a great impact on the development of literary treatises and poetry houses."
Another influential poet monk from the Tendai tradition was Fujiwara no Shunzei (1114–1204). His son, Fujiwara no Teika was also influenced by the classic Tendai thought of Zhiyi. These two figures were central to the development of the aesthetic concept of yūgen (幽玄, profound grace and subtlety).LaFleur, R. William. Symbol and Yūgen: Shunzei's Use of Tendai Buddhism In "Flowing Traces: Buddhism in the Literary and Visual Arts of Japan," pp. 16-45, edited by James H. Sanford, William R. LaFleur, Masatoshi Nagatomi. According to William R. LaFleur, the development of yūgen aesthetic theory was also influenced by the Tendai practice of shikan meditation. According to LaFleur, for Shunzei's poetics, the beauty of yūgen manifests a deep tranquility which reflects and is akin to shikan practice. This link is asserted by Shunzei in his Kurai futeisho.Odin, Steve (2001). Artistic Detachment in Japan and the West: Psychic Distance in Comparative Aesthetics, pp. 107-108. University of Hawaii Press. These poets also understood the depth of yūgen through the holistic Tendai metaphysics of interfusion .
A number of notable monks contributed to Tendai thought and its history after Saichō, including:
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