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The Principate was the form of imperial government of the Roman Empire from the beginning of the reign of Augustus in 27 BC to the end of the Crisis of the Third Century in AD 284, after which it evolved into the Dominate.Loewenstein, K. (1973). The Governance of Rome (p. 370), . Springer Science & Business Media.Goldsworthy, A. (2010). How Rome Fell Death of a Superpower. (p. 443). Yale Univ Pr.
"From Diocleitan onwards, emperors to be called dominus, which meant lord or master"
Under the Republic, the princeps senatus, traditionally the oldest or most honored member of the Senate, had the right to be heard first on any debate.O Seyffeert, A Dictionary of Classical Antiquities (London 1891) p. 516 Scipio Aemilianus and Scipionic circle had fostered the (quasi-Platonic) idea that authority should be invested in the worthiest citizen ( princeps), who would beneficently guide his peers, an ideal of the patriot statesman later taken up by Cicero.H J Rose, A Handbook of Latin Literature (Methuen 1967) pp. 99, 235
See for a general overview of Diocletian reforms at the provincial, political, and economic levels, which differed from the principate
Although dynastic pretenses crept in from the start, formalizing this in a monarchic style remained politically perilous;J Burrow, A History of Histories (Penguin 2007) pp. 124–125 and Octavian was undoubtedly correct to work through established Republican forms to consolidate his power.J Boardman ed. The Oxford History of the Classical World (1991) p. 538 He began with the powers of a Roman consul, combined with those of a Tribune of the plebs; later added the role of the Roman censor and finally became pontifex maximus as well.D Wormersley ed, Abridged Decline and Fall (Penguin 2005) pp. 70–71Cassius, D. (1987). The Roman history : the reign of Augustus (I. Scott-Kilvert, Trans.; pp. 140–142). Penguin Books.
In addition to these legal powers, the principate was also characterized by the emperor being the "ultimate source of patronage".Goldsworthy, A. (2010). How Rome Fell Death of a Superpower. (pp. 45–46). Yale Univ Pr. This was due in part to their immense wealth, being named Pater Patriae or "father of the country "Adrian Keith Goldsworthy. (2014). Augustus : first emperor of Rome (pp. 395–396). Yale University Press. , and by having a monopoly on political power. To this, emperors would satisfy the senatorial class with appointments to the high offices and to the provinces, effectively removing threats to their power in Rome. As such, emperors went to great lengths to control and satisfy the needs of the army (their ultimate source of power) by proving gracious Donativum to the troops upon their ascension and for special events; limiting senatorial control over the legions by way of controlling military provinces through "extraordinary military commands"; and using oaths to bind the military to the emperor personally.Bleicken, J. (2015). Augustus (A. Bell, Trans.; pp. 496–503). Penguin UK.
See for emperors monopoly on military power
See for emperors justification for holding "extraordinary military command was still needed" and relationship between imperial and senatorial provinces.
Tiberius, like Augustus, also acquired his powers piecemeal, and was proud to emphasize his place as first citizen: "a good and healthful princeps, whom you have invested with such great discretionary power, ought to be the servant of the Senate, and often of the whole citizen body".Gaius Tranquillus Suetonius. (2006). The Twelve Caesars (p. 121). Penguin Thereafter, however, the role of princeps became more institutionalized: as Dio Cassius puts it, Caligula "took in one day all the honours which Augustus had with difficulty been induced to accept".Cassius Dio, Cary, E., & Herbert Baldwin Foster. (1924). Dio’s Roman History (p. 268). Harvard University Press; London.
Nevertheless, under this "Principate stricto sensu", the political reality of autocratic rule by the Roman emperor was still scrupulously masked by forms and conventions of oligarchy self-rule inherited from the political period of the 'uncrowned' Roman Republic (509 BC–27 BC) under the motto Senatus Populusque Romanus ("The Senate and people of Rome") or SPQR. Initially, the theory implied the 'first citizen' had to earn his extraordinary position ( de facto evolving to nearly absolute monarchy) by merit in the style that Augustus himself had gained the position of auctoritas.
Imperial propaganda developed a paternalistic ideology, presenting the princeps as the very incarnation of all virtues attributed to the ideal ruler (much like a Greek tyrannos earlier), such as clemency and justice, and military leadership,C Edwards Intro, Lives of the Caesars (OUP 2000) p. xxi obliging the princeps to play this designated role within Ancient Rome society, as his political insurance as well as a moral duty. What specifically was expected of the princeps seems to have varied according to the times, and the observers:C Edwards Intro, Lives of the Caesars (OUP 2000) pp. xxiii–xxv Tiberius, who amassed a huge surplus for the city of Rome, was criticized as a miser,Gaius Tranquillus Suetonius, Graves, R., & Grant, M. (2006). The Twelve Caesars (pp. 129–130). Penguin. while his successor Caligula was criticized for his lavish spending on games and spectacles.Gaius Tranquillus Suetonius, Graves, R., & Grant, M. (2006). The Twelve Caesars (pp. 165–167). Penguin.
Generally speaking, it was expected of the Emperor to be generous but not frivolous, not just as a good ruler but also with his Fiscus (as in the proverbial "bread and circuses" – panem et circenses) providing occasional public games, gladiators, chariot races and artistic shows. Large distributions of food for the public and charitable institutions also served as popularity boosters, while the construction of public works provided paid employment for the poor.
This period saw several firsts for the imperial office, including the first recognised period of rule by two emperors during the co-rule of Marcus Aurelius and Lucius Verus from their accession in 161 AD until the latter's death in 169 AD, and the succession of Commodus marking the first transfer of power to a son born to a sitting emperor. Often ranked amongst the worst Roman emperors, Commodus's 12-year reign was followed by a civil war between rival generals and the final dynasty of the Principate, the Severan dynasty.
It was after the Crisis of the Third Century, which almost resulted in the Roman Empire's political collapse, that Diocletian firmly consolidated the trend to autocracy.H M Gwatkin ed., The Cambridge Medieval History Vol I (1924) p. 25 He replaced the one-headed principate with the Tetrarchy (, two Augusti ranking above two Caesares),H M Gwatkin ed., The Cambridge Medieval History Vol I (1924) p. 27 in which the vestigial pretense of the old republican forms was largely abandoned. The title of princeps disappeared, together with the concept of only one emperor. New forms of pomp and awe were deliberately used in an attempt to insulate the emperor(s) and the civil authority from the unbridled and mutinous soldiery of the mid-century.H M Gwatkin ed., The Cambridge Medieval History Vol I (1924) p. 25
The political role of the Senate went into final eclipse,J Boardman ed. The Oxford History of the Classical World (1991) p. 808 no more being heard of the division by the Augustan Principate of the provinces between imperial provinces and senatorial provinces.H M Gwatkin ed., The Cambridge Medieval History Vol I (1924) p. 29 Lawyers developed a theory of the total delegation of authority into the hands of the emperor.H M Gwatkin ed., The Cambridge Medieval History Vol I (1924) p. 28
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