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An off-road vehicle ( ORV), also known as an off-highway vehicle ( OHV), overland vehicle or adventure vehicle, is a type of transportation specifically engineered to navigate unpaved roads and surfaces. These include , , and other low-traction terrains. Off-road vehicles are widely used in various contexts, from recreational activities to practical applications like agriculture and construction. Events such as the annual Dakar Rally, which spans multiple countries and challenges participants with diverse and extreme terrains, have brought significant attention to these vehicles.
After the Russian Revolution of 1917, Kégresse returned to France and the system was used on Citroën cars between 1921 and 1937 for off-road and . Citroën sponsored several overland expeditions with these vehicles, crossing North Africa and Central Asia.
The Antarctic Snow Cruiser, a large-wheeled vehicle designed between 1937 and 1939 under the direction of Thomas Poulter, was intended for transport in Antarctica. While the project incorporated novel features, it faced operational difficulties in the harsh Antarctic conditions, and was discontinued.
Willys MB, originally developed as military vehicles during World War II, gained popularity among civilians as . This was also the start of off-roading as a hobby. The wartime Jeeps soon wore out, though, and the Jeep company started to produce civilian derivatives, closely followed by similar vehicles from United Kingdom Land Rover and Toyota, Datsun/Nissan, Suzuki, and Mitsubishi. These were all similar: small, compact, four-wheel drive vehicles with, at most, a small hard top to protect the occupants from the elements. Early off-road vehicles included the U.S. Jeep Wagoneer and Ford Bronco; the British Range Rover; and the Japanese Toyota Land Cruiser, Nissan Patrol, and Suzuki LJ. They featured bodies similar to those of a station wagon but on a light truck-like frame, with four-wheel-drive Powertrain. As off-road vehicles increased in popularity during the 1990s, more companies began producing their own lines of what became known as sport utility vehicles (SUV). Manufacturers started incorporating more features to make off-road vehicles competitive with regular vehicles in the consumer market, which eventually evolved into the modern SUV and the newer crossover vehicle, whose off-roading capabilities were reduced in favor of improved on-road handling and luxury.
Tracked are more expensive to produce and maintain but offer better off-road performance, while wheeled drivetrains are cheaper and allow for higher speeds.
Tires are crucial for wheeled off-road vehicles, and off-road tire tread types vary based on the terrain. Common types include A/T (All-Terrain) and M/T (mud terrain). A/T tires perform well on sand but are less effective in mud. Sand Blaster and Mud bogging tires are used for challenging terrains like dirt, sand, and water to ensure traction at high angles and speeds (off-road motorsport).
Most off-road vehicles are equipped with gear, allowing the operator to optimize the engine's available power for slow movement through difficult terrain. An internal combustion engine coupled to a standard gearbox often has an output speed that is too high, which is resolved by using a very low ("granny") first gear (as in all-wheel drive Volkswagen Transporter versions) or an additional gearbox in line with the first, known as a reduction drive. Some vehicles, such as the Bv206, also have to reduce the gearing.
In the United States, (including ) account for 36 percent of all registered vehicles and are involved in about half of all fatal two-vehicle crashes with passenger cars. In 80 percent of these crashes, the fatalities are occupants of the passenger cars.
All trail and off-trail activities affect vegetation and wildlife, leading to erosion, invasive species, habitat loss, and ultimately, species loss, which reduces an ecosystem's ability to maintain homeostasis. ORVs cause more environmental stress than hiking alone, and ORV operators who attempt to challenge natural obstacles can cause significantly more damage than those who stay on legal trails. Illegal off-road vehicle use is a serious land management issue, comparable to illegal Waste dumping and other forms of vandalism. Organizations such as Tread Lightly! and the Sierra Club promote responsible trail ethics.
ORVs have also been criticized for creating excessive pollution in otherwise pristine areas, as well as noise pollution that can impair hearing and stress wildlife. In 2002, the United States Environmental Protection Agency adopted emissions standards for all-terrain vehicles that, "when fully implemented in 2012, ...they are expected to prevent the release of more than two million tons of air pollution each year—the equivalent of removing the pollution from more than 32 million cars every year."
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