Product Code Database
Mandaeans (Mandaic language: ࡌࡀࡍࡃࡀࡉࡉࡀ) ( ), also known as Mandaean Sabians (الصابئة المندائيون ) or simply as Sabians (الصابئة ), are an ethnoreligious group who are followers of Mandaeism. They believe that John the Baptist was the final and most important prophet.
They may have been among the earliest religious groups to practise baptism, as well as among the earliest adherents of Gnosticism, a belief system of which they are the last surviving representatives. The Mandaeans were originally native speakers of Mandaic language, an Eastern Aramaic language, before they nearly all switched to Mesopotamian Arabic or Persian language as their main language.
After the invasion of Iraq by the United States and its allies in 2003, the Mandaean community of Iraq, which before the war numbered 60,000–70,000 persons, collapsed with most of the community relocating to Iran, Syria and Jordan, or forming diaspora communities beyond the Middle East.
The remaining community of Iranian Mandaeans has also been dwindling as a result of religious persecution over the decades. Unlike other religious minorities such as Christians, Iranian Jews and Zoroastrians, Mandaeans have no protection from persecution whatsoever, similar to Baháʼís in Iran. By 2007, the population of Mandaeans in Iraq had fallen to approximately 5,000. There are estimated to be 60,000–100,000 Mandaeans worldwide. About 10,000 Mandaeans live in Australia and between 10,000 and 20,000 in Sweden, making them the countries with the most Mandaeans. There are about 2,500 Mandaeans in Jordan, the largest Mandaean community in the Middle East outside of Iraq and Iran.
In Muslim countries, Mandaeans are sometimes also called Sabians ( ), a epithet historically claimed by several religious groups (see also below).; . The etymology of the Arabic word is disputed. According to one interpretation, it is the active participle of the Arabic Arabic root -- ('to turn to'), meaning 'converts'.; , citing and also referring to . Another widely cited hypothesis is that it is derived from an Aramaic language root meaning 'to baptize'.
There are also other theories. Kevin van Bladel has argued that the Mandaeans originated in Asoristan in the fifth century.. For a critical review of van Bladel's thesis, see . According to Carlos Gelbert, Mandaeans formed a vibrant community in Edessa in late antiquity.
Brikha Nasoraia, a Mandaean priest and scholar, accepts a two-origin theory in which he considers the contemporary Mandaeans to have descended from both a line of Mandaeans who had originated from the Jordan Valley, as well as another group of Mandaeans (or Gnostics) who were indigenous to southern Mesopotamia. Thus, the historical merging of the two groups gave rise to the Mandaeans of today.There are several indications of the ultimate origin of the Mandaeans. Early religious concepts and terminologies recur in the Dead Sea Scrolls, and yardna River Jordan has been the name of every baptismal water in Mandaeism. Mara ḏ-Rabuta (Mandaic language: "Lord of Greatness", one of the names for Hayyi Rabbi) is found in the Genesis Apocryphon (1Q20) II, 4. They formally refer to themselves as Naṣuraiia (), meaning guardians or possessors of secret rites and knowledge. Another early self-appellation is bhiria zidqa, meaning 'elect of righteousness' or 'the chosen righteous', a term found in the Book of Enoch and Genesis Apocryphon II, 4. As Nasoraeans, Mandaeans believe that they constitute the true congregation of bnia nhura, meaning 'Sons of Light', a term used by the Essenes. The bit manda (beth manda) is described as biniana rba ḏ-šrara ("the Great building of Truth") and bit tušlima ("house of Perfection") in Mandaean texts such as the Qulasta, Ginza Rabba, and the Mandaean Book of John. The only known literary parallels are in Essene texts from Qumran such as the Community Rule, which has similar phrases such as the "house of Perfection and Truth in Israel" ( Community Rule 1QS VIII 9) and "house of Truth in Israel." The Mandaic language, a Southeastern Aramaic dialect, exhibits significant inherited features from Akkadian (like the Aramaic dialects of the Assyrian people), particularly from the Late Babylonian phase. Phonetic, grammatical, and lexicographic elements traceable to Akkadian strongly suggest that the origins of Mandaic and its speakers, the Mandaeans, are deeply rooted in Mesopotamia. While Mandaic has historically been classified alongside Babylonian Talmudic Aramaic, Assyrian neo-Aramaic and Syriac language as part of Eastern Aramaic, recent linguistic analysis has led to the recognition of a distinct Southeastern Aramaic branch. This classification is based on clear isoglosses in phonology, morphology, syntax, and lexicography that separate the Mandaic language.
The roots of the Mandaic language extend back to the early Parthian Empire period, with no compelling evidence of Western Aramaic linguistic influence in Mandaic or the Aramaic of the Assyrians. The Mandaeans are thought to descend from an Assyro-Babylonian population, further reinforcing the connection between Mandaic and its Mesopotamian heritage. This distinction highlights the uniqueness of Mandaic within the broader Aramaic linguistic landscape. Although there appears to be strong religious connections between the Mandaeans with both ancient Assyro-Babylonian beliefs and Gnostic Jewish sects, such as the Elcesaites, linguistically the Mandaeans speak what can be considered a pure form of Babylonian Aramaic.
A priest holds the title of Mandaean priestMcGrath, James F., ARAM Periodical / (2010): 583–592. and a place of worship is called a Mashkhanna.Secunda, Shai, and Steven Fine.
According to Mandaean sources such as the Haran Gawaita, the Nasuraiia inhabited the areas around Jerusalem and the River Jordan in the 1st century CE.Buckley, Jorunn Jacobsen (2010). Turning the Tables on Jesus: The Mandaean View. In There is archaeological evidence that attests to the Mandaean presence in pre-Islamic Iraq. Scholars, including Kurt Rudolph, connect the early Mandaeans with the Jewish sect of the Nasoraeans. Mandaeans believe that their religion predates Judaism. According to Mandaean scripture, the Mandaeans descend directly from Shem, Noah's son, in Mesopotamia and also from John the Baptist's original Nasoraean Mandaean disciples in Jerusalem. According to the Mandaean Society in America, Mani (the founder of Manichaeism) was influenced by the Mandaeans, and a pre-Manichaean presence of the Mandaean religion is more than likely.Gerard Russell quotes Rishama Sattar Jabbar Hilo, "Ours is the oldest religion in the world. It dates back to Adam." Russell adds, "He Rishama traced its history back to Babylon, though he said it might have some connection to the Jews of Jerusalem." The Mandaean Synod of Australia led by Rishama Salah Choheili states:
Mandaeans appear to have flourished during the early Islamic period, as attested by the voluminous expansion of Mandaic literature and canons. Tib near Wasit is particularly noted as an important scribal center. Yaqut al-Hamawi describes Tib as a town inhabited by 'Nabatean' (i.e. Aramaic speaking) 'Sabians' (see below) who consider themselves to be descendants of Seth.
The status of the Mandaeans was questioned by the Abbasid caliph al-Qahir Billah (899–950 CE), even though they had received recognition as People of the Book. To avoid further investigation by the authorities, the Mandaeans paid a bribe of 50,000 dinars and were left alone. It appeared that the Mandaeans were even exempt from paying the Jizya, otherwise imposed upon non-Muslims.
It has been suggested by some scholars that intellectuals who worked at the Abbasid court such as Thābit ibn Qurra may have been Mandaeans,; . though most scholars believe they were adherents of the pagan astral religion of Harran.; ; ; ; .
The Mandaeans suffered persecution under the Qajar rule in the 1780s. The dwindling community was threatened with complete annihilation, when a cholera epidemic broke out in Shushtar and half of its inhabitants died. The entire Mandaean priesthood perished and Mandaeism was restored due to the efforts of few learned men such as Yahya Bihram. Another danger threatened the community in 1870, when the local governor of Shushtar massacred the Mandaeans against the will of the Shah.
Mandeans, who mostly lived in rural parts of Maysan Governorate, migrated to large cities such as Baghdad and Basra. This caused a major change in the community, as they transitioned from traditionalism to modernism. The future generation entered the world of politics. Some of them became leaders in the Communist Party. Some of them entered the Baath Party and the rest of the parties . During the time of Abdul Karim Qasim persecution decreased. Later under Saddam Hussein, the Mandaean community flourished in Iraq. They were given permission to practice their religion and the government allocated them lands to build their places of worship. A decree was issued in 1972, allowing Mandeans to have holiday and enjoy during their festivals.
In Iraq, Mandaeans were renowned goldsmiths and silversmiths, particularly in Baghdad, where they operated shops in Al-Nahr Street, , Qushla, Rusafa, Al-Karimat, Al-Azramli, and Al-Fahhama on the Karkh side. Many Mandaeans also held prominent positions in the government. Lamia Abbas Amara served as Iraq’s cultural attaché and deputy permanent representative to UNESCO in Paris from 1973 to 1975. Poet Abdul Razzaq Abdul was a cultural advisor to the Ministry of Culture and Information, while astronomer Abdul Azim Al-Sabti played a key role in establishing the Erbil Observatory on Mount Korek, the largest observatory in the Middle East. In 2001, Saddam granted them the title of "Golden Sect". He pledged to build more Mandaean temples. Rishama Sattar Jabbar Hilow met Saddam in 2001, an event televised in Iraq. The Sabian–Mandaean Mandi in Baghdad was built on the land donated by the government.
According to local sources, their population until 2003 was 75,000. The 2003 American invasion of Iraq and the Iraq war that followed brought more troubles to Mandaeans, as the security situation deteriorated. Many members of the Mandaean community, who were known as goldsmiths, were targeted by criminal gangs for ransoms. The rise of ISIS forced thousands to flee the country, after they were given the choice of conversion or death. It is estimated that around 90% of Iraqi Mandaeans were either killed or have fled after the U.S. led invasion.
The Mandaeans of Iran lived chiefly in Ahvaz, Iranian Khuzestan, but have moved as a result of the Iran–Iraq War to other cities such as Tehran, Karaj and Shiraz. The Mandaeans, who were traditionally considered as People of the Book (members of a protected religion under Islamic rule), lost this status after the Iranian Revolution. However, despite this, Mandaeans still maintain successful businesses and factories in areas such as Ahwaz. In April 1996, the cause of the Mandaeans' religious status in the Islamic Republic was raised. The parliament came to the conclusion that Mandaeans were included in the protected status of People of the Book alongside Christians, Jews and Zoroastrians and specified that, from a legal viewpoint, there is no prohibition against Muslims associating with Mandaeans, whom the parliament identified as being the Sabians mentioned explicitly in the Quran. That same year, Ayatollah Sajjadi of Al-Zahra University in Qom posed three questions regarding the Mandaeans' beliefs and seemed satisfied with the answers. These rulings, however, did not lead to Mandaeans regaining their more officially recognized status as People of the Book. In 2009, Iran's Supreme Leader Ayatollah Ali Khamenei issued a fatwa recognizing the Mandaeans as People of the Book.
Many Iraqi Mandaeans have fled the country in the face of this violence, and the Mandaean community in Iraq faces extinction. Out of the over 60,000 Mandaeans in Iraq in the early 1990s, fewer than 5,000 to 10,000 remain there as of 2007. In early 2007, more than 80% of Iraqi Mandaeans were refugees in Syria and Jordan as a result of the Iraq War. In 2019, an Al-Monitor study estimated the Iraqi Mandaean population to be 3,000, 400 of which lived in the Erbil Governorate, which is 5% or less than the pre-Iraq war Mandaean population.
Mandaeans in the past were renowned silver and gold smiths, blacksmiths and boatbuilders, even before the Abbasid Caliphate when they gained fame as intellectuals in the cultural and scientific fields. In modern Iraq, Mandaeans have gained prominence as academics, writers, artists, poets, physicians, engineers and jewelers.
Until the Iranian Revolution, Mandaeans were mainly concentrated in the Khuzestan Province, where the community used to coexist with the local Arab people population. Other than the main cities of Ahvaz and Khorramshahr, Mandaean communities also existed in towns such as Chogha Zanbil in Shush County, Shushtar, and Abadan, as well as Mahshahr, Shadegan, Behbahan, and Susangerd (Khafajiyeh). Mandaean communities had also formerly existed in Dezful, Hamidiyeh, Hoveyzeh, Karun County, and Abadan. '') in the Karun River, Ahvaz, Iran]]They were mainly employed as , passing their skills from generation to generation. After the fall of the shah, its members faced increased religious discrimination, and many emigrated to Europe and the Americas.
In Iran, the Gozinesh Law (passed in 1985) has the effect of prohibiting Mandaeans from fully participating in civil life. This law and other gozinesh provisions make access to employment, education, and a range of other areas conditional upon a rigorous ideological screening, the principal prerequisite for which is devotion to the tenets of Islam. These laws are regularly applied to discriminate against religious and ethnic groups that are not officially recognized, such as the Mandaeans, Yarsanism and Baháʼís. Annual Report for Iran , 2005, Amnesty International.
In 2002, the US State Department granted Iranian Mandaeans protective refugee status. Since then, roughly 1,000 have emigrated to the US, now residing in cities such as San Antonio, Texas. On the other hand, the Mandaean community in Iran has increased over the last decade because of the exodus from Iraq of the main Mandaean community, which used to be 50,000–70,000 strong.
On September 15, 2018, the Beth Manda Yardna was consecrated in Dalby, Scania, Sweden.
The status of the Mandaeans has prompted a number of American intellectuals and civil rights activists to call upon the US government to extend refugee status to the community. In 2007, The New York Times ran an op-ed piece in which Swarthmore professor Nathaniel Deutsch called for the Bush administration to take immediate action to preserve the community. Iraqi Mandaeans were given refugee status by the US State Department in 2007. Since then, more than 2500 have entered the US, many settling in Worcester, Massachusetts. The community in Worcester is believed to be the largest in the United States and the second largest community outside the Middle East. About 2,600 Mandaeans from Iran have been settled in Texas since the Iraq War.
The Mandaeans group existence into two main categories: light and darkness. They have a dualistic view of life, that encompasses both good and evil; all good is thought to have come from the World of Light (i.e. lightworld) and all evil from the World of Darkness. In relation to the body–mind dualism coined by Descartes, Mandaeans consider the body, and all material, worldly things, to have come from the dark, while the soul (sometimes referred to as the mind) is a product of the lightworld.
Mandaeans believe that there is a constant battle or conflict between the forces of good and evil. The forces of good are represented by Nhura (Light) and Maia Hayyi (Living Water) and those of evil are represented by Hshuka (darkness) and Maia Tahmi (dead or rancid water). The two waters are mixed in all things in order to achieve a balance. Mandaeans also believe in an afterlife or heaven called Alma d-Nhura (World of Light). In Mandaeism, the World of Light is ruled by a Supreme God, known as Hayyi Rabbi ('The Great Life' or 'The Great Living God'). Other names used are ('Lord of Greatness'), ('The Great Mind'), ('King of Light') and ('The First Life').Drower, Ethel Stefana. The Mandaeans of Iraq and Iran. Oxford At The Clarendon Press, 1937.Rudolf, K. (1978). Mandaeism. Leiden: Brill. God is so great, vast, and incomprehensible that no words can fully depict how awesome God is. It is believed that an innumerable number of (angels or guardians), manifested from the light, surround and perform acts of worship to praise and honor God. They inhabit worlds separate from the lightworld and some are commonly referred to as emanations and are subservient beings to 'The First Life'; their names include Second, Third, and Fourth Life (i.e. Yushamin, Abathur, and Ptahil). The Lord of Darkness (Krun) is the ruler of the World of Darkness formed from dark waters representing chaos. A main defender of the darkworld is a giant monster, or dragon, with the name Ur, and an evil, female ruler also inhabits the darkworld, known as Ruha. The Mandaeans believe these malevolent rulers created demonic offspring who consider themselves the owners of the seven planets and zodiac.
According to Mandaean beliefs, the material world is a mixture of light and dark created by Ptahil, who fills the role of the demiurge, with help from dark powers, such as Ruha, the Seven, and the Twelve. Adam's body (believed to be the first human created by God in Abrahamic tradition) was fashioned by these dark beings, however his soul (or mind) was a direct creation from the Light. Therefore, many Mandaeans believe the human soul is capable of salvation because it originates from the lightworld. The soul, sometimes referred to as the 'inner Adam' or Adam kasia, is in dire need of being rescued from the dark, so it may ascend into the heavenly realm of the lightworld. are a central theme in Mandaeism, believed to be necessary for the redemption of the soul. Mandaeans do not perform a single baptism, as in religions such as Christianity; rather, they view baptisms as a ritual act capable of bringing the soul closer to salvation. Therefore, Mandaeans are baptized repeatedly during their lives. John the Baptist is a key figure for the Mandaeans; they consider him to have been a Nasoraean Mandaean. John is referred to as their greatest and final teacher.
Edmondo Lupieri believes Mandaeism is a post-Christian southern Mesopotamian Gnostic off-shoot and claims that Zazai d-Gawazta to be the founder of Mandaeism in the 2nd century. Jorunn J. Buckley refutes this by confirming scribes that predate Zazai who copied the Ginza Rabba. In addition to Edmondo Lupieri, Christa Müller-Kessler argues against the Palestinian origin theory of the Mandaeans claiming that the Mandaeans are Mesopotamian. Edwin Yamauchi believes Mandaeism's origin lies in the Transjordan where a group of 'non-Jews' migrated to Mesopotamia and combined their Gnostic beliefs with indigenous Mesopotamian beliefs at the end of the 2nd century CE.
The Mandaean author Aziz Sbahi in his book, The Origins of Sabians and their Religious Beliefs, traced the Mandaeans to the Babylonian Era. Sbahi, who is known more as a secretary of the Iraqi Communist Party, acknowledges that Mandaeism may have been affected by religions in Mesopotamia and the Dead Sea region. Sbahi believes that Mandaeism originated in surroundings that had Hellenic, Babylonian, Gnostic and Judaic influence. However, due to Sbahi's lack of knowledge of the Mandaic language, he read only secondary sources on the Mandaeans. Brikha Nasoraia, a Mandaean priest and scholar, believes in a two-origin theory in which he considers the contemporary Mandaeans to have descended from both proto-Mandaeans originating in the Jordan valley as well as another group of Mandaeans (or Gnostics) indigenous to southern Mesopotamia.
Scholars specializing in Mandaeism such as Kurt Rudolph, Mark Lidzbarski, Rudolf Macúch, Ethel S. Drower, Eric Segelberg, James F. McGrath, Charles G. Häberl, Jorunn Jacobsen Buckley, and Şinasi Gündüz argue for an Israelite origin. The majority of these scholars believe that the Mandaeans likely have a historical connection with John the Baptist's inner circle of disciples.; ; ; ; ; McGrath, James F., ARAM Periodical / (2010): 583–592.R. Macuch, "Anfänge der Mandäer. Versuch eines geschichtliches Bildes bis zur früh-islamischen Zeit", chap. 6 of F. Altheim and R. Stiehl, Die Araber in der alten Welt II: Bis zur Reichstrennung, Berlin, 1965. Charles Häberl, who is also a linguist specializing in Mandaic language, finds Jewish Aramaic, Samaritan Aramaic, Hebrew language, Greek language and Latin influence on Mandaic and accepts Mandaeans having a "shared Israelite history with Jews". In addition, scholars such as Richard August Reitzenstein, Rudolf Bultmann, G. R. S. Mead, Samuel Zinner, Richard Thomas, J. C. Reeves, Gilles Quispel, and K. Beyer also argue for a Judea/Palestine or Jordan Valley origin for the Mandaeans.; Mead, G. R. S., Gnostic John the Baptizer: Selections from the Mandaean John-Book, Dumfries & Galloway UK, Anodos Books (2020)Reeves, J. C., Heralds of that Good Realm: Syro-Mesopotamian Gnostic and Jewish Traditions, Leiden, New York, Koln (1996).Quispel, G., Gnosticism and the New Testament, Vigiliae Christianae, vol. 19, No 2. (Jan., 1965), pp. 65–85.Beyer, K., The Aramaic Language; Its Distribution and Subdivisions, translated from the German by John F. Healey, Gottingen (1986) James McGrath and Richard Thomas believe there is a direct connection between Mandaeism and pre-exilic traditional Israelite religion. Lady Ethel S. Drower "sees early Christianity as a Mandaean heresy"
and adds "heterodox Judaism in Galilee and Samaria appears to have taken shape in the form we now call gnostic, and it may well have existed some time before the Christian era." Barbara Thiering questions the dating of the Dead Sea Scrolls and suggests that the Teacher of Righteousness (leader of the Essenes) was John the Baptist. Jorunn J. Buckley accepts Mandaeism's Israelite or Judean origins and adds:
Some modern scholars have identified the Sabians mentioned in the Quran as Mandaeans,Most notably and , both cited by . although many other possible identifications have been proposed.As noted by , modern scholars have variously identified the Sabians of the Quran as Mandaeans, Manichaeans (), Sabaeans, Elchasaites, Archontics, Hanif (either as a type of Gnostics or as "sectarians"), or as adherents of the astral religion of Harran. Various scholarly identifications are discussed by . Some scholars believe it is impossible to establish their original identity with any degree of certainty.; ; ; . Mandaeans continue to be called Sabians to this day..
|
|
