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Khandoba (IAST: Khaṇḍobā), also known as Martanda Bhairava and Malhari, is a Hindu deity worshiped generally as a manifestation of Shiva mainly in the Deccan Plateau of India, especially in the state of Maharashtra and North Karnataka. He is the most popular Kuladevata (family deity) in Maharashtra.Singh p.ix He is also the patron deity of some Kshatriya Marathas (warriors), Lingayats, farming castes, Dhangar (warriors holkar) , shepherd community and Brahmin (priestly) castes as well as several of the hunter/gatherer tribes that are native to the hills and forests of this region.
The sect of Khandoba has linkages with Hinduism and Jain traditions, and also assimilates all communities irrespective of caste, including . The cult of Khandoba as a folk deity dates at least to 12th century. Khandoba emerged as a composite god possessing the attributes of Shiva, Bhairava, Surya and Kartikeya (Skanda). Khandoba is sometimes identified with Mallanna of Andhra Pradesh and Mailara of Karnataka.
Khandoba is depicted either in the form of a linga, or as an image of a warrior riding on a horse. The foremost centre of Khandoba worship is the Khandoba temple of Jejuri in Maharashtra. The legends of Khandoba, found in the text Malhari Mahatmya and also narrated in folk songs, revolve around his victory over demons Mani-malla and his marriages.
In (icons), Khandoba or Mailara is depicted as having four arms, carrying a damaru (drum), Trishula (trident), bhandara-patra (turmeric powder-filled bowl) and khadga (sword). Khandoba's images are often dressed as a Maratha sardar,Sontheimer in Hiltebeitel p.303 or a Muslim pashtun people.Sontheimer in Hiltebeitel p.323 Often, Khandoba is depicted as a warrior seated on horseback with one or both of his wives and accompanied with one or more dogs.Stanley (Nov. 1977) p. 32 He is also worshipped as the aniconic linga, the symbol of Shiva.For worship of Khandoba in the form of a lingam and possible identification with Shiva based on that, see: Mate, p. 176. Often in Khandoba temples, both representations of Khandoba — the aniconic linga and the anthropomorphic horseback form.
The legend recounts that the demon Malla and his younger brother Mani, who had gained the boon of invincibility from the god Brahma, create chaos on the earth and torment the sages. When the Saptarsi approach Shiva for protection, Shiva assumes the form (avatar) of Martanda Bhairava (as the Mahatmya calls Khandoba) on Chaitra Shuddha Poornima at Adimailar, Mailapura near Bidar. He rides the Nandi bull, leading an army of the gods. Martanda Bhairava is described as shining like gold and the Sun, covered in turmeric ( Haridra), three-eyed and with a crescent moon on his forehead.Sontheimer in Bakker p.118 The demon army is slaughtered by the gods; finally Khandoba kills Malla and Mani. While dying, Mani offers his white horse to Khandoba as an act of repentance and asks for a boon. The boon is that he be present in every shrine of Khandoba, that human-kind is bettered and that he be given an offering of goat flesh. The boon is granted, and thus he transforms a demigod. Malla, when offered a boon, asks for the destruction of the world and human-flesh. Angered by the demon's request, Khandoba decapitates him, and his head falls at the temple stairs where it is trampled by the devotees feet. The legend further describes how two Lingam appeared at Prempuri, the place where the demons were killed.Stanley in Hiltebeitel pp.272–77For a detailed synopsis of Malhari Mahtmya, see Sontheimer in Bakker pp.116–26
Oral stories continue the process of Sanskritization of Khandoba — his elevation from a folk deity to Shiva, a deity of the classical Hindu pantheon — that was initiated by the texts. Khandoba's wives Mhalsa and Banai are also identified with Shiva's classical Hindu wife, Parvati, and Ganga respectively. Hegadi Pradhan, the minister and brother-in-law of Khandoba and brother of Lingavat Vani Mhalsa,Sontheimer in Hiltebeitel p.328 the faithful dog that helps Khandoba kill the demons, the horse given by Mani and the demon brothers are considered avatars of Vishnu, Nandi and the demons respectively. Other myth variants narrate that Khandoba defeats a single demon named Manimalla, who offers his white horse, sometimes called Mani, to the god.Stanley in Hiltebeitel p.278 Other legends depict Mhalsa (or Parvati) and Banai or Banu (or Ganga) as futilely helping Khandoba in the battle to collect the blood of Mani, every drop of which creates a new demon. Finally, the dog of Khandoba swallows all the blood. Sometimes, Mhalsa, or rarely Banai, is described as seated behind Khandoba on the horse and fighting with a sword or spear.Stanley in Hiltebeitel pp.280–4
The legends portray Khandoba as a king who rules from his fortress of Jejuri and holds court where he distributes gold. Also, king Khandoba goes on hunting expeditions, which often turn into "erotic adventures", and subsequent marriages.Sontheimer in Feldhaus p.116
Khandoba's third wife, Rambhai Shimpin, is a tailor woman who was a heavenly nymph or apsara and is sometimes identified with Banai. She is a prototype of the Muralis — the girls "married" to Khandoba. Rambhai is worshipped as a goddess whom Khandoba visits after his hunt. She is also localised, being said to come from the village from Dhalewadi, near Jejuri. The fourth wife Phulai Malin, from the gardener or Mali caste, She was a particular Murali and is thus a deified devotee of Khandoba. She is visited by him at "Davna Mal" (field of southernwood, a herb said to be dear to Khandoba). The fifth wife, Candai Bhagavin, is a , a member of the oilpresser caste. She is recognized as a Muslim by the Muslims. Apart from these, Muralis — girls offered to Khandoba — are considered as wives or concubines of the god.Sontheimer in Feldhaus p. 118Stanley (Nov. 1977) p. 33
Sontheimer stresses the association of Khandoba with clay and termite mounds. Oral legends tell of Khandoba's murtis being found in termite mounds or "made of earth".Sontheimer in Bakker p.110 According to Sontheimer, Martanda Bhairava (Khandoba) is a combination of the sun god Surya and Shiva, who is associated with the moon. Martanda ("blazing orb") is a name of Surya, while Bhairava is a form of Shiva.Stanley (Nov. 1977) p. 33 Sundays, gold and turmeric, which are culturally associated with the sun, form an important part of the rituals of Khandoba. Sontheimer associates the worship of the Sun as termite mounds for fertility and his role as a healer to Khandoba's role as granter of fertility in marriages and to the healing powers of turmeric, which the latter holds.Sontheimer in Bakker p.113
Another theory identifies Kartikeya (Skanda) with Khandoba.For use of the name Khandoba as a name for Karttikeya in Maharashtra, Gupta Preface, and p. 40. The hypotheses of the theory rests upon the similarities between Skanda and Khandoba, namely their association with mountains and war, similarity of their names and weapons (the lance of Skanda and the sword of Khandoba) and both having two principal wives. Also the festivals for both deities, Champa Sashthi and Skanda Sashthi respectively for Khandoba and Skanda fall on the same day. Other symbols associated with Khandoba are the dog and horse.Sontheimer in Bakker p.114
An important part of the Khandoba-sect is navas, a vow to perform service to the god in return for a boon of good harvest, male child, financial success etc. On fulfilment of the navas, Khandoba was offered children or some devotees would afflict pain by hook-swinging or fire-walking.Stanley in Hiltebeitel p.293 This type of worship using navas is called Sakama Bhakti – worship done with an expectation of return and is considered "to be of a lower esteem".Burman p.1227 But the most faithful bhaktas (devotees) are considered to be greedy only for the company of their Lord, Khandoba is also called bhukela – hungry for such true bhaktas in the Martanda Vijaya.Sontheimer in Hiltebeitel p.313
Boys called Vāghyā (or Waghya, literally "tigers") and girls called Muraḹi were formerly dedicated to Khandoba, but now the practice of marrying girls to Khandoba is illegal. The Vaghyas act as the of Khandoba and identify themselves with the dogs of Khandoba, while Muralis act as his courtesans ( apsaras — nymphs or ). The Vaghyas and their female counterparts Muralis sing and dance in honour of Khandoba and narrate his stories on Jagarana — all night song-festivals, which are sometimes held after navas fulfilment. Another custom was ritual-suicide by Viras (heroes) in the cult.Sontheimer in Hiltebeitel p.308 According to legend, an "untouchable" Mang (Matanga) sacrificed himself for the foundation of the temple at Jejuri to persuade Khandoba to stay at Jejuri forever. Other practices in the cult include the belief that Khandoba possesses the body of a Vaghya or devrsi (shaman).Sontheimer in Hiltebeitel p.302See Stanley in Zelliot pp. 40–53: for details of possession beliefs: Angat Yene:Possession by the Divine Another ritual in the cult is an act of chain-breaking in fulfilment of a vow or an annual family rite; the chain is identified with the snake around Shiva's neck, which was cut by the demons in the fight. Another rite associated with the family duties to please Khandoba is the tali bharne, which is to be performed every full moon day. A tali (dish) is filled with coconuts, fruits, betel nuts, saffron, turmeric ( Bhandar) and Bel leaves. Then, a coconut is placed on a pot filled with water and the pot is worshipped as an embodiment of Khandoba. Then, five persons lift the tali, place it repeatedly on the pot thrice, saying "Elkot" or "Khande rayaca Elkot". Then the coconut in the tali is broken and mixed with sugar or jaggery and given to friends and relatives. A Gondhali is performed along with the tali bharne.
Khandoba is considered as the giver of fertility. Maharashtrian Hindu couples are expected to visit a Khandoba temple to obtain Khandoba's blessing on consummation of marriage. Traditional Maharashtrian families also organize a jagaran as part of the marriage ceremony, inviting the god to the marriage. The Sanskrit Malhari Mahatmya suggests offerings of incense, lights, betel and animals to Khandoba. The Marathi version mentions offerings of meat and the worship by chedapatadi – "causing themselves to be cut", hook-swinging and self-mortification by viras. Marathi version calls this form of bhakti (devotion) as ugra (violent, demonic) bhakti. The Martanda vijaya narrates about Rakshasha bhakti (demonic worship) by animal sacrifice and self — torture. Possession by Khandoba, in form of a wind, is lower demonic worship ( pishachi worship). Sattva worship, the purest form of worship, is believed to be feeding Khandoba in form of a Brahmin.
Another festival Somvati Amavasya, which is a Amavasya that falls on a Monday, is celebrated in Jejuri. A palakhi (palanquin) procession of the images of Khandoba and Mhalsa is carried from the Gad-kot temple to the Karha river, where the images are ritually bathed.Sontheimer in Bakker p.127See Stanley (Nov. 1977) pp. 34–38 for a detailed description
In Pali-Pember, the ritual of the marriage of Khandoba with Mhalsa is annually performed. Turmeric is offered to the deities. Two festivals are celebrated in honour of Mailara, as Khandoba is known in Karnataka. These are the Vijayadashami festival at Devaragudda, and an eleven-day festival in Maagha month (February–March) in Mailar, Bellary district. Both festivals have enactments of the battle between Mailar and the demons Mani-Malla.Stanley in Hiltebeitel p.314 Chaitra Purnima (full-moon day) is also considered auspicious.See Stanley (Nov. 1977) p. 39
In general, Sundays, associated with the Sun, are considered auspicious for Khandoba worship.Stanley (Nov. 1977) p. 30
As per R. C. Dhere, two stone inscriptions in 1063 C.E. and 1148 C.E mentioning the folk deities Mailara and his consort Malavva which suggests that Mailara gained popularity in Karnataka in this period. Soon, royals of this region started erecting temples to this folk deity, upsetting the elite class of established religion who vilified Mailara. Initially exalted as an incarnation of Shiva, Mailara was denounced by Basava, the founder of the Shiva-worshipping Lingayat sect – who would later promote the deity. Chakradhar Swami (c.1270, founder of Mahanubhava sect), Vidyaranya (1296–1391) and Sheikh Muhammad (1560–1650) criticized the god. The Varkari poet-saint Eknath also wrote "disparagingly" about Khandoba's cult worship, but after him, the "open" criticism of Khandoba stopped, but the "barbaric" practices of his cult were still targeted.
Sontheimer suggests that Khandoba was primarily a god of herdsmen, and that the cult of Khandoba is at least older than 12th century, which can be determined by references in Jain and Lingayat texts and inscriptions. A 12th-century Jain author Brahmashiva claims that a Jain, who died in battle after a display of his valour, was later named as Mailara. By the 13th century, wide worship of Malhari or Mailara is observed by kings, Brahmins, simple folk and warriors. With the rise of the Muslim empire, classical Hindu temples fell into ruin, giving rise to the folk religion such as of Khandoba. Chakradhara remarked in his biography Leela Charitra - "by the end of the Kali Yuga, temples of Vishnu and Shiva will be destroyed, but those of Mairala will stay". A 1369 AD inscription at Inavolu near Warangal tells an account of Mallari different from the Malhari Mahatmya — Shiva helped the epic hero Arjuna kill the demon Malla, thus acquiring the title of Mallari. Mailara was the family deity of the Kakatiya dynasty (1083–1323 AD); a text from their rule records the self-torture rituals of Mailara-devotees and describes the deity. Throughout his development, Mailara is looked upon as a lower manifestation of Ishvara (God) by Lingayat and Maharashtrian bhakti saints.Sontheimer in Bakker pp. 106–7 By the 18th century, Khandoba had become the clan deity of the Maratha Empire. In 1752, the Maratha dowager queen Tarabai chose Khandoba's Jejuri temple to seal her pact with the Peshwa ruler, Balaji Bajirao, in the deity's presence.
The Malhari Mahatmya states that Khandoba first appeared on Champa-Shashthi, which was a Sunday, at Premapur, which identified as Pember (Adimailar, Mailarapur) near Bidar. Marathi traditions tell that Khandoba came originally from Premapuri, now Pember in Karnataka, then went to Naldurg, Pali and finally to Jejuri. Sontheimer suggests that the cult of Mailara may have originated in Pember and then spread to Maharashtra, merging with the cult of Khandaka — the patron yaksha (demi-god) of Paithan giving it its distinct Maharashtrain characteristics. Maharashtrains call the god – Kanadya Khanderaya, the god from Karnataka. The cult possibly was spread by Lingayat, Jain and other merchants, associated with Mailara-Khandoba, to other parts of the Deccan. Besides Mailara, Khandoba is identified with other deities of Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh, and is called as Mallanna, Mairala, and Mallu Khan.Sontheimer in Bakker pp.108–9 Other traditions like Shakta sects of folk goddesses were assimilated into the Khandoba sect, identifying the goddesses with Khandoba's wives Mhalsa or Banai.Sontheimer in Bakker p.116
Marathi literature has a mixed reaction to the sect of Khandoba. Naranjanamadhva (1790) in stotra (hymn) dedicated to Khandoba calls him "an illustrious king with rich clothes and a horse with a saddle studded with jewels", who was once "an ascetic beggar who ride an old bull and carried an ant-bitten club (khatvanga)" – a humorous take on the Puranic Shiva. In another instance (1855), he is called a ghost by a Christians missionary and aChitpavan in a debate against a Deshastha Brahmin. Another Brahmin remarks with scorn about the impurity of the Khandoba temple, visited by and whose priests are non-Brahmin Guravs. The Marathi term "khel-khandoba", which is taken to mean "devastation" in general usage, refers to the possession of devotee by the god in his sect.
Muslim veneration
Khandoba is also a figure of respect and worship to Muslims, and this affiliation is visible in the style of his temples. He is called Mallu or Ajmat Khan (Rautray) by Muslim devotees, and is many times portrayed as being a Muslim himself in this context. The latter title is believed to conferred upon by the Mughal invader king Aurangzeb, who was forced to flee from Jejuri by Khandoba's power. Some of these distinguishing Muslim features include his usual appearance as that of a Pashtuns on horseback, one of his wives being a Muslim, and that his horse-keeper is a Muslim in Jejuri. The Martaṇḍa Vijaya expressly states that his devotees are mainly Muslims. The worship of Khandoba had received royal patronage by Ibrahim II, which consisted of the reinstatement of the annual Zatra (fair) and the right of pilgrims to perform rituals at the Naldurg temple.Sontheimer in Hiltebeitel pp. 325–7 The Malhari Mahatmya even records Muslims ( mleccha) as the god's bhaktas (devotees), who call him as Malluka Pathan or Mallu Khan.Sontheimer in Bakker p.116 In Jejuri, a Muslim family traditionally looks after the horses of the god.
Temples
There are over 600 temples dedicated to Khandoba in the Deccan Plateau. His temples stretch from Nasik, Maharashtra in the north to Davangere, Karnataka in the south, Konkan, Maharashtra in the west to western Andhra Pradesh in the east. The eleven principal centres of worship of Khandoba or jagrut , where the deity is to be called awake or "jagrut", are recognized; six of them in Maharashtra and the rest in northern Karnataka. Khandoba's temples resemble forts, the capital of his kingdom being Jejuri. The priests here are , not Brahmins. His most important temples are:
Festivals
A six-day festival, from the first to sixth lunar day of the bright fortnight of the Hindu month of Margashirsha, in honour of Khandoba is celebrated at Jejuri, to commemorate the fight with demons Mani-Malla. On the sixth day (Champa-Shashthi), Khandoba is believed to have slew the demons. A jatra (temple festival and fair) is held in Pember on Champa-shasthi; the festival continues until the new moon.Sontheimer in Bakker p.108 Deshastha Brahmans and Marathas also observe the annual Champa-Shashthi festival. The images of Khandoba and Malla are cleaned and worshipped. For six days, a fast is observed. On the seventh day, the devotees break their fast by a feast known as Champasashtliiche parne. An invitation to this feast is regarded as an invitation from Khandoba himself and is harder to refuse.A
Development of the sect
The sect of Khandoba, a Folk Hinduism, reflects the effect of Vedic Rudra, the Puranic Shiva worshipped as Linga in Brahmanical Hinduism and Nath and Lingayat sects. Khandoba may be a product of the Vedic Rudra, who like Khandoba was associated with robbers, horses and dogs.Sontheimer in Hiltebeitel pp.301–2 The 14th-century commentator Sayana traces the name Malhari to the Taittiriya Samhita, Malhari is explained as enemy (ari) of Malha (Prajapati) – an epithet of Rudra, who is considered a rival of the deity Prajapati. According to Stanley, Khandoba originated as a mountain-top god, solar deity and a regional guardian and then assimilated into himself gods of various regions and communities. According to Stanley, Khandoba inherits traits from both the sun-god Surya as well as Shiva, who is identified with the moon. Stanley describes Khandoba as "a moon god, who has become a sun god", emphasizing on how the moon imagery of Shiva transforms into the solar iconography of Khandoba in the Malhari Mahatmya.
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