Ishvara () is a concept in Hinduism, with a wide range of meanings that depend on the era and the school of Hinduism.[Monier Monier Williams, Sanskrit-English dictionary, Search for Izvara , University of Cologne, Germany][ In ancient texts of Hindu philosophy, depending on the context, Ishvara can mean lord, ruler, king, husband, queen, soul or the Supreme Self (Paramatman).][ In medieval-era Hindu texts, depending on the school of Hinduism, Ishvara means God, Supreme Being, personal God, or special Self.][
In Shaivism, Ishvara is an epithet of Shiva.][James Lochtefeld, "Ishvara", The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism, Vol. 1: A–M, Rosen Publishing. , page 306][RK Pruthi (2004), Arya Samaj and Indian Civilization, , pages 5–6, 48–49] In the Yoga school of Hinduism, it is any "personal deity" or "spiritual inspiration".[ In Advaita Vedanta, Ishvara is the manifested form of Brahman (Saguna brahman).]
Etymology
The root of the word Ishvara comes from ( ) meaning "capable of" and "owner, ruler, chief of".[Arthur Anthony Macdonell (2004), A Practical Sanskrit Dictionary, Motilal Banarsidass, , page 47] The second part of the word Ishvara is ( ), which means depending on context, "best, excellent, beautiful", "choice, wish, blessing, boon, gift", and "suitor, lover, one who solicits a girl in marriage".[Arthur Anthony Macdonell (2004), A Practical Sanskrit Dictionary, Motilal Banarsidass, , page 270] The composite word, Ishvara literally means "owner of best, beautiful", "ruler of choices, blessings, boons", or "chief of suitor, lover".
As a concept, Ishvara in ancient and medieval Sanskrit texts variously means a ruler or king, a husband, God, Supreme Being, Supreme Self, Shiva, the god of love, one of the Rudras and the number 'eleven'.[Apte Sanskrit-English dictionary, Search for Izvara , University of Cologne, Germany]
The word Īśvara does not appear in Rigveda.[ However, the verb īś- does appear in Rigveda, where the context suggests that the meaning of it is "capable of, able to".][Madhav Deshpande (1991), Sense and Syntax in Vedic (Editors: Joel Brereton and Stephenie Jamison), Volumes 4–5, Brill, , pages 23–27] It is absent in Samaveda, is rare in Atharvaveda, but it appears in of Yajurveda. The contextual meaning, however as the ancient Indian grammarian Pāṇini explains, is neither god nor supreme being.[
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The word Ishvara appears in numerous ancient Dharmasutras. However, there Ishvara does not mean God, but means .[ Ishvara in Dharmasutras could alternatively mean king, with the context literally asserting that the Dharmasutras are as important as Ishvara (the king) on matters of public importance".][Patrick Olivelle (2006), Between the Empires : Society in India 300 BCE to 400 CE: Society in India, Oxford University Press, , page 176]
The term is used as part of the compounds Maheshvara ("The Great Lord") and Parameshvara ("The Supreme Lord") as the names of Vishnu and Shiva. In Mahayana Buddhism it is used as part of the compound "Avalokiteśvara" ("lord who hears the cries of the world", but see etymology section there), the name of a bodhisattva revered for his compassion. When referring to divine as female, particularly in Shaktism, the feminine Ishvari is sometimes used.
In Advaita Vedanta school, Ishvara is a monistic Universal Absolute that connects and is the Oneness in everyone and everything.[Lance Nelson (1996), Living liberation in Shankara and classical Advaita, in Living Liberation in Hindu Thought (Editors: Andrew O. Fort, Patricia Y. Mumme), State University of New York Press, , pages 38–39, 59 (footnote 105)][
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Schools of thought
Among the six systems of Hindu philosophy, Samkhya and Mimamsa do not consider the concept of Ishvara (i.e., a supreme being) relevant. Yoga, Vaisheshika, Vedanta and Nyaya schools of Hinduism discuss Ishvara, but assign different meanings.
Ishvara is a metaphysical concept in the Yogasutras.[Michele Marie Desmarais (2008), Changing Minds: Mind, Consciousness And Identity in Patanjali's Yoga-Sutra, Motilal Banarsidass, , page 131] The book does not mention a specific deity or describe any devotional practices ( Bhakti), nor does it provide characteristics of Ishvara typically associated with a deity.[ In the Yoga school of Hinduism, states Ian Whicher, a professor of religion at the University of Manitoba, Ishvara is neither a creator God nor the universal Absolute of Advaita Vedanta.][ Whicher also notes that some theistic sub-schools of Vedantic philosophy of Hinduism, inspired by the Yoga school, explain the term Ishvara as the "Supreme Being that rules over the cosmos and the individuated beings".][Ian Whicher, The Integrity of the Yoga Darsana, State University of New York press, , pages 82–86][A Malinar (2014), Current Approaches: Articles on Key Themes, in The Bloomsbury Companion to Hindu Studies (Editor: Jessica Frazier), Bloomsbury Academic, , page 79]
Bhakti sub-schools refer to Ishvara as a divine lord or the specified deity of the Bhakti sub-school.[Zimmer (1951), Philosophies of India, Reprinted by Routledge in 2008, , pages 242–243, 309–311] Some contemporary sectarian movements have emphasised Ishvara as a supreme lord—for example, the International Society for Krishna Consciousness theology is monotheistic, with Krishna being the universe's supreme divinity.[Karel Werner (1997), A Popular Dictionary of Hinduism, Routledge, , page 54] In traditional theistic sub-schools of Hinduism, such as the Vishishtadvaita of Ramanuja and Dvaita of Madhva, Ishvara is identified as Vishnu and/or Narayana, who is distinct from the prakṛti (material world) and purusha (Self).
The diversity in interpretations of Ishvara aligns with theistic Hinduism's notion of a personal God.[Radhakrishnan and Moore (1967, Reprinted 1989), A Source Book in Indian Philosophy, Princeton University Press, , pages 37–39, 401–403, 498–503] Thus, Hinduisms also allow practicing individuals choice in their conceptualisations of Ishvara, whether that be in the form of a specific deity or the formless Brahman of ultimate reality.[Mircea Eliade (2009), Yoga: Immortality and Freedom, Princeton University Press, , pages 73–76][Dale Riepe (1961, Reprinted 1996), Naturalistic Tradition in Indian Thought, Motilal Banarsidass, , pages 177–184, 208–215][RC Zaehner (1975), Our savage god: The perverse use of eastern thought, , pages 69–72][R.C. Zaehner (1966), Hinduism, Oxford University Press, 1980 edition: pages 126–129, Reprinted in 1983 as ]
In Samkhya
Samkhya is commonly considered an atheistic school of Hindu philososphy.[Lloyd Pflueger, Person Purity and Power in Yogasutra, in Theory and Practice of Yoga (Editor: Knut Jacobsen), Motilal Banarsidass, , pages 38–39][Mikel Burley (2012), Classical Samkhya and Yoga – An Indian Metaphysics of Experience, Routledge, , page 39][Richard Garbe (2013), Die Samkhya-Philosophie, Indische Philosophie Volume 11, , pages 25–27 (in German)] However, some, such as Norwegian scholar Knut A. Jacobsen, consider Samkhya to be more accurately described as a form of nontheism.[Knut Jacobsen (2008), Theory and Practice of Yoga: 'Essays in Honour of Gerald James Larson, Motilal Banarsidass, , pages 15–16] Still others, including State University of New York Indologist and professor Andrew J. Nicholson, argue that Samkhya was originally theistic but transitioned to atheism during the Middle Ages.[Knut Jacobsen (2008), Theory and Practice of Yoga: 'Essays in Honour of Gerald James Larson, Motilal Banarsidass, , pages 76–77] For example, arguments are advanced in the Samkhya Pravachana Sutra and its commentaries against the existence of Ishvara, chiefly that a being that is both a creator and free cannot exist.[Andrew J. Nicholson (2017), 'Refuting Vedantic Theism in the Samkhya-Sutra' in The Oxford Handbook of Indian Philosophy, ed. Jonardon Ganeri, Oxford University Press , pages 598–622]
In Yoga
The Yoga Sutras of Patanjali, the foundational text of the Yoga school of Hinduism, uses the term Ishvara in 11 verses: I.23–I.29, II.1, II.2, II.32 and II.45. Since the Sutras were compiled, Hindu scholars have debated the identity and purpose of Ishvara, with beliefs ranging from Ishvara-as-"personal god" to it being "special Self", and to "anything that has spiritual significance to the individual".[Hariharānanda Āraṇya (2007), Parabhaktisutra, Aporisms on Sublime Devotion, (Translator: A Chatterjee), in Divine Hymns with Supreme Devotional Aphorisms, Kapil Math Press, Kolkata, pages 55-93; Hariharānanda Āraṇya (2007), Eternally Liberated Isvara and Purusa Principle, in Divine Hymns with Supreme Devotional Aphorisms, Kapil Math Press, Kolkata, pages 126–129] Whicher explains that while Patanjali's terse verses can be interpreted both as theistic or nontheistic, the compiler's concept of Ishvara in Yogic philosophy functions as a "transformative catalyst or guide for aiding the yogin on the path to spiritual emancipation".[Ian Whicher (1999), The Integrity of the Yoga Darsana: A Reconsideration of Classical Yoga, State University of New York Press, , page 86]
Patanjali defines Ishvara (Sanskrit: ईश्वर) in verse 24 of Book 1 as "a special Self (पुरुषविशेष, puruṣa-viśeṣa)",
– Yoga Sutras I.24
This sutra adds the characteristics of Ishvara as the special Self which is unaffected (अपरामृष्ट, aparamrsta) by one's obstacles/hardships (क्लेश, klesha), one's circumstances created by past or one's current actions (कर्म, karma), one's life fruits (विपाक, vipâka), and one's psychological dispositions/intentions (आशय, ashaya).[ aparAmRSTa , kleza, karma, vipaka and ashaya ; Sanskrit English Dictionary, Koeln University, Germany][Lloyd Pflueger (2008), Person Purity and Power in Yogasutra, in Theory and Practice of Yoga (Editor: Knut Jacobsen), Motilal Banarsidass, , pages 31–45]
Patanjali's concept of Ishvara is neither as a creator God nor the universal Absolute of Advaita Vedanta.[Knut Jacobsen (2008), Theory and Practice of Yoga: 'Essays in Honour of Gerald James Larson, Motilal Banarsidass, , page 77]
In Vaisesika
The Vaisheshika school of Hinduism, as founded by Kanada in the 1st millennium BCE, neither required nor relied on Ishvara for its atomism naturalist philosophy. To it, substances and paramāṇu (atoms) are eternal; they move and interact based on impersonal, eternal adrsta (अदृष्ट, invisible) laws of nature.[A Goel (1984), Indian philosophy: Nyāya-Vaiśeṣika and modern science, Sterling, , pages 149–151] The concept of Ishvara, among others, entered into the Vaisheshika school many centuries later in the 1st millennium CE.[R Collins (2000), The sociology of philosophies, Harvard University Press, , page 836] The evolution in ideas aimed to explain how and why its so-called "atoms" have a particular order and proportions. Later ancient Vaisheshika scholars retained their belief that substances are eternal, and added Ishvara as another 'eternal'—albeit one who is also omniscient and omnipresent (but not omnipotent). Vaisheshika scholars posited that Ishvara did not create the world; he created laws that operate the world before becoming passive and letting those universal laws affect reality without divine intervention .[ Thus, Vaisheshika's Ishvara mirrors the Deus otiosus of deism. Klaus Klostermaier, in a 2007 survey of Hinduism, writes that Ishvara can be understood as an eternal God who co-exists in the universe with eternal substances and atoms, but only to the point that he "winds up the clock, and lets it run its course".][Klaus Klostermaier (2007), A Survey of Hinduism, Third Edition, State University of New York, , page 337]
In Nyaya
Early Nyaya school scholars considered Ishvara a creator God with the power to grant blessings, boons, and fruits. However, the early Nyaya scholars rejected this hypothesis, though not the existence of God itself, and were non-theistic.[John Clayton (2010), Religions, Reasons and Gods: Essays in Cross-cultural Philosophy of Religion, Cambridge University Press, , page 150][G. Oberhammer (1965), Zum problem des Gottesbeweises in der Indischen Philosophie, Numen, 12: 1-34] Over time, the Nyaya school became one of the most important defenders of theism in Hindu philosophy.[Francis X. Clooney (2010), Hindu God, Christian God: How Reason Helps Break Down the Boundaries, Oxford University Press, , pages 18–19, 35–39]
Nyayasutra's Book 4, Chapter 1, examines what causes the production and destruction of entities (life, matter) in the universe. It considers many hypotheses, including Ishvara. Verses 19–21 postulate that Ishvara exists and is the cause, state a consequence of the postulate, then present contrary evidence, and from the contradiction conclude that the postulate must be invalid.[
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Centuries later, the 5th-century CE Nyaya school scholar Prastapada revisited the premise of Ishvara. He was followed by Udayana, who in his text Nyayakusumanjali, interpreted "it" in verse 4.1.21 of Nyaya Sutra above, as "human action" and "him" as "Ishvara", then he developed counter arguments to prove the existence of Ishvara.[Sharma, C. (1997). A Critical Survey of Indian Philosophy, Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, , pp. 209-10] In developing his arguments, he inherently defined Ishvara as efficient cause, omnipotent, omniscient, infallible, giver of gifts, ability and meaning to humanity, divine creator of the world as well as the moral principles, and the unseen power that makes the karma doctrine work.[VR Rao (1987), Selected Doctrines from Indian Philosophy, , pages 11–12]
In Mimamsa
Mīmāṃsā scholars of Hinduism questioned what Ishvara (God) is.[FX Clooney (1997), What's a god? The quest for the right understanding of devatā in Brāhmaṅical ritual theory (Mīmāṃsā), International Journal of Hindu Studies, August 1997, Volume 1, Issue 2, pages 337–385] They used their pramana tools to cross-examine answers offered by other schools of Hinduism. For example, when Nyaya scholars stated that God is omnipotent, omniscient, and infallible, that the world is the result of God's creation, which is proved by the presence of creatures, just like human work proves human existence, Mimamsa scholars asked, Why does this God create the world, for what reason? Further, they added, it cannot be because of Ishvara's love for human beings, because this world, if Ishvara created it, is imperfect, and human souls suffer. Mimamsa scholars of Hinduism raised numerous objections to any definition of Ishvara and its premises. They deconstructed justifications for the concept of Ishvara and considered it unnecessary for a consistent philosophy and moksha (spiritual liberation).[P. Bilimoria (2001), Hindu doubts about God: Towards Mimamsa Deconstruction, in Philosophy of Religion: Indian Philosophy (Editor: Roy Perrett), Volume 4, Routledge, , pages 87–106]
In Vedanta
Advaita Vedanta
The Advaita Vedanta school of Hinduism proclaims that at the empirical level, Ishvara is the cause of the universe and the one who awards the fruits of every action. He is defined as the one without likes and dislikes, as well embodied with compassion (vaiṣamya Nairgghṛṇya doṣa vihīnaḥ). Ishvara is that which is "free from avidyā (ignorance), free from ahaṃkṛti (ego-sense), free from bandhana (bondage)", a Self that is "pure, enlightened, liberated".[John Koller (2012), Routledge Companion to Philosophy of Religion (Editors: Chad Meister, Paul Copan), Routledge, , pages 99–107]
Having accepted and established Ishvara, Advaita Vedanta proclaims that the fundamental nature of Ishvara (existence, consciousness, and bliss) is non-different from the fundamental nature of an individual. This gives room in Advaita Vedanta to show the nature of Ishvara as both the material and instrumental cause of this universe and the individual who is limited in his own capacities as unreal, and declare that there is oneness between the two, having negated the qualities. This establishes Ishvara as 'saguṇa' or with attributes from the empirical existence and 'nirguṇa' from the absolute sense. This oneness is accepted only at the 'mukti' or ultimate realisation level and not at the 'vyavahara' or empirical level. At the absolute level, there is no otherness nor distinction between Jiva (living being) and Ishvara, and any attempts to distinguish the two are a false idea, one based on wrong knowledge, according to Advaita Vedanta.[Paul Hacker (1978), Eigentumlichkeiten dr Lehre und Terminologie Sankara: Avidya, Namarupa, Maya, Isvara, in Kleine Schriften (Editor: L. Schmithausen), Franz Steiner Verlag, Weisbaden, pages 101–109 (in German), also pages 69–99]
Other Advaitin Hindu texts resonate with the monism views of Adi Shankara. For example, Isa Upanishad, in hymn 1.5-7, states Ishvara is "above everything, outside everything, beyond everything, yet also within everything"; he who knows himself as all beings and all beings as himself – he never becomes alarmed before anyone. He becomes free from fears, delusions, and the root cause of evil. He becomes pure, invulnerable, unified, free from evil, accurate to truth, liberated like Ishvara.[William Indich (2000), Consciousness in Advaita Vedanta, Motilal Banarsidass, , page 23-25][Paul Deussen, Sixty Upanishads of the Veda, Volume 2, Motilal Banarsidass, , pages 547–551]
When the universe is not manifest, Shankara conceives of Ishvara as abiding in a state of dreamless sleep. The universe's manifestation occurs when Ishvara is in a dreaming state, wherein Ishvara is visualising the universe owing to its memory of previous creations. Just as the state of dreaming is dependent on memory (not separate from the mind), the universe does not have an existence separate from Ishvara. Ishvara's knowledge is thus a necessary condition for the universe's existence.
Vishishtadvaita Vedanta
Ishvara, in Vishishtadvaita Vedanta sub-school of Hinduism, is a composite concept of dualism and non-dualism, or "non-dualism with differentiation".[McCasland et al. (1969), Religions of the world, Random House, , page 471] Ishvara, Vishishtadvaitin scholars such as the 11th century Ramanuja state, is the supreme creator and synonymous with Brahman.[ Ishvara manifests in five forms, according to the Vishishtadvaitins: para (transcendent), vyuha (emanations), vibhava (incarnations), antaryamin (dwells inside), and arca (icons).][ According to this sub-school, states John Grimes, Ishvara possesses six divine qualities: jnana (knowledge), bala (strength), aisvarya (lordship), sakti (power), virya (virility) and tejas (splendor).][John Grimes (1996), A Concise Dictionary of Indian Philosophy: Sanskrit Terms Defined in English, State University of New York Press, , page 143]
Ramanuja's Vishishtadvaita concepts provided the foundation for several Bhakti movements of Hinduism, such as those by Sri Aurobindo[Thomas Padiyath (2014), The Metaphysics of Becoming, De Gruyter, , page 151] and has been suggested as having influenced Basava's Lingayatism.[Carl Olson (2007), The Many Colors of Hinduism: A Thematic-historical Introduction, Rutgers University Press, , pages 243–244]
Dvaita Vedanta
The Dvaita (dualism) sub-school of Vedanta Hinduism, founded by 13th 13th-century Madhva, defines Ishvara as the creator God that is distinct from Jiva (individual Selves in living beings).[R. Prasad (2009), A Historical-developmental Study of Classical Indian Philosophy of Morals, Concept Publishing, , pages 345–347] Narayana (Vishnu) is considered to be Ishvara, and the Vaishnavism movement arose on the foundation developed by Dvaita Vedanta sub-school.[Oliver Leaman (2000), Eastern Philosophy: Key Readings, Routledge, , page 251]
Ishvara (God) is a complete, perfect, and the highest reality to Dvaitins, and simultaneously, the world is a separate reality for them, unlike competing thoughts in other sub-schools of Vedanta.[ In Dvaita sub-school, Jiva (individual Self) is different, yet dependent on Ishvara (God). Both possess the attributes of consciousness, bliss, and existence, but the individual Self is considered atomic, while God is all-encompassing. The attributes of Jiva struggle to manifest, while God fully manifests them.][
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Madhva states there are five permutations of differences between Jiva (individual Self) and Ishvara (God): between God and Self, between God and matter, between Self and matter, between one Self and another Self, and between one material thing and another material thing. The differences are both qualitative and quantitative.[ Unlike Advaita Vedantins who hold that knowledge can lead to Oneness with everyone and everything as well as fusion with the Universal Timeless Absolute, to the state of moksha in this life, Dvaita Vedantins hold that moksha is possible only in after-life if God so wills (if not, then one's Self is reborn). Further, Madhva highlights that God creates individual Self, but the individual Self never was and never will become one with God; the best it can do is to experience bliss by getting infinitely close to God.][Thomas Padiyath (2014), The Metaphysics of Becoming, De Gruyter, , pages 155–157]
The world, called Maya, is held as the divine will of Ishvara.[ Jiva suffers, experiences misery and bondage, state Dvaitins, because of "ignorance and incorrect knowledge" ( ajnana). Liberation occurs with the correct knowledge and attainment unto Lord Narayana.][ It is His grace that gives salvation according to Dvaita sub-school, which is achievable by predominance of sattva guna (moral, constructive, simple, kindness-filled life), and therefore Dvaitins must live a Dharma life while constantly remembering, deeply loving Ishvara.][
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Achintya-Bheda-Abheda
is a sub-school of [[Vedanta]] representing the philosophy of ''inconceivable one-ness and difference'', in relation to the creation, Prakriti, and the creator, Ishvara ([[Krishna]]).[[http://vedabase.net/cc/madhya/20/108-109/en1 ''Madhya'' 20.108-109] "It is the living entity's constitutional position to be an eternal servant of Krishna because he is the marginal energy of Krishna and a manifestation simultaneously one with and different from the Lord, like a molecular particle of sunshine or fire."][ 1.25: '''']
In Sanskrit achintya means 'inconceivable', bheda translates as 'difference', and abheda translates to 'one-ness'. Self (their English phrase for the Sanskrit word: jiva) is considered a part of God, and thus one with Him in quality, yet at the same time different from Him in quantity. This is called acintya-bheda-abheda-tattva, inconceivable, simultaneous oneness and difference.
Caitanya's philosophy of acintya-bhedābheda-tattva is understood to be part of a progression to devotional theism. Rāmānuja had agreed with that the Absolute is one only, but he had disagreed by affirming individual variety within that oneness. Madhvacharya had underscored the eternal duality of the Supreme and the jiva: he had maintained that this duality endures even after liberation. Caitanya, in turn, specified that the Supreme and the jīvas are "inconceivably, simultaneously one and different" (acintya-bheda-abheda).
In Carvaka
Cārvāka, another atheist tradition in sramana, was materialist and a school of philosophical scepticism. They rejected all concepts of Ishvara and all forms of supernaturalism.[Robert Flint, , Appendix Note VII – Hindu Materialism: The Charvaka System; William Blackwood, London][V.V. Raman (2012), Hinduism and Science: Some Reflections, Zygon – Journal of Religion and Science, 47(3): 549–574, Quote (page 557): "Aside from nontheistic schools like the Samkhya, there have also been explicitly atheistic schools in the Hindu tradition. One virulently anti-supernatural system is/was the so-called Carvaka school.", ][KN Tiwari (1998), Classical Indian Ethical Thought, Motilal Banarsidass, , page 67, Quote: "Of the three heterodox systems, the remaining one, the Caravaka system, is a Hindu system."]
See also
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