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Illustrated handscrolls, , or is an illustrated horizontal narration system of painted that dates back to Nara-period (710–794 CE) Japan. Initially copying their much older Chinese counterparts in style, during the succeeding Heian period (794–1185) and (1185–1333), Japanese developed their own distinct style. The term therefore refers only to Japanese painted narrative scrolls.
As in the Chinese and Korean scrolls, combine calligraphy and illustrations and are painted, drawn or stamped on long rolls of paper or silk sometimes measuring several metres. The reader unwinds each scroll little by little, revealing the story as seen fit. are therefore a narrative genre similar to the book, developing romantic or epic stories, or illustrating religious texts and legends. Fully anchored in the style, these Japanese works are above all an everyday art, centered on the human being and the sensations conveyed by the artist.
Although the very first 8th-century were copies of Chinese works, of Japanese taste appeared from the 10th century in the Heian imperial court, especially among aristocratic ladies with refined and reclusive lives, who devoted themselves to the arts, poetry, painting, calligraphy and literature. During this period, the techniques of composition became highly accomplished, and the subjects were even more varied than before, dealing with history, religion, romances, and other famous tales. The patrons who sponsored the creation of these were above all the aristocrats and Buddhist temples. During the late Heian period, the Four Great Illustrated Handscrolls of Japan ( Nihon Yondai Emaki) were produced. These include Ban Dainagon Ekotoba, Chōjū-jinbutsu-giga, Genji Monogatari Emaki, and Shigisan Engi Emaki. They are regarded as representative examples of the tradition and have all been designated as National Treasures of Japan. From the 14th century, the genre became more marginal, giving way to new movements born mainly from Zen Buddhism.
paintings mostly belong to the style, characterized by its subjects from Japanese life and landscapes, the staging of the human, and an emphasis on rich colours and a decorative appearance. The format of the , long scrolls of limited height, requires the solving of all kinds of composition problems: it is first necessary to make the transitions between the different scenes that accompany the story, to choose a point of view that reflects the narration, and to create a rhythm that best expresses the feelings and emotions of the moment. In general, there are thus two main categories of : those which alternate the calligraphy and the image, each new painting illustrating the preceding text, and those which present continuous paintings, not interrupted by the text, where various technical measures allow the fluid transitions between the scenes.
Today, offer a unique historical glimpse into the life and customs of Japanese people, of all social classes and all ages, during the early part of medieval times. Few of the scrolls have survived intact, and around 20 are protected as National Treasures of Japan.
An is read, according to the traditional method, sitting on a mat with the scroll placed on a low table or on the floor. The reader then unwinds with one hand while rewinding it with the other hand, from right to left (according to the writing direction of Japanese). In this way, only part of the story can be seen – about , though more can be unrolled – and the artist creates a succession of images to construct the story.
Once the has been read, the reader must rewind the scroll again in its original reading direction. The is kept closed by a cord and stored alone or with other rolls in a box intended for this purpose, and which is sometimes decorated with elaborate patterns. An can consist of several successive scrolls as required of the story – the was made up of 48 scrolls, although the standard number typically falls between one and three.
An is made up of two elements: the sections of calligraphic text known as , and the sections of paintings referred to as ; their size, arrangement and number vary greatly, depending on the period and the artist. In inspired by literature, the text occupies no less than two-thirds of the space, while other more popular works, such as the , favour the image, sometimes to the point of making the text disappear. The scrolls have a limited height (on average between and ), compared with their length (on average to ), meaning that are therefore limited to being read alone, historically by the aristocracy and members of the high clergy.
The origins of Japanese handscrolls can be found in China and, to a lesser extent, in Korea, the main sources of Japanese artistic inspiration until modern times. Narrative art forms in China can be traced back to between the 3rd century CE under the Han dynasty and the 2nd century CE under the Zhou dynasty, the pottery of which was adorned with hunting scenes juxtaposed with movements. Paper was invented in China in about the 1st century CE, simplifying the writing on scrolls of laws or sutra, sometimes decorated. The first narrative scrolls arrived later; various masters showed interest in this medium, including Gu Kaizhi (345–406), who experimented with new techniques. Genre painting and Chinese characters, dominant in the scrolls up to the 10th century CE, remain little known to this day, because they were overshadowed by the famous landscape scrolls of the Song dynasty.
Relations with East Asia (mainly China and Korea) brought Chinese writing (kanji) to Japan by the 4th century, and Buddhism in the 6th century, together with interest in the apparently very effective bureaucracy of the mighty Chinese Empire. In the Nara period, the Japanese were inspired by the Tang dynasty: administration, architecture, dress customs or ceremonies. The exchanges between China and Japan were also fruitful for the arts, mainly religious arts, and the artists of the Japanese archipelago were eager to copy and appropriate continental techniques. In that context, experts assume that the first Chinese painted scrolls arrived on the islands around the 6th century CE, and probably correspond to illustrated sutra. Thus, the oldest known Japanese narrative painted scroll (or ) dates from the 7th century to the Nara period: the , which traces the life of the Gautama Buddha, founder of the Buddhist religion, until his Illumination. Still naive in style (Six Dynasties and early Tang dynasty) with the paintings arranged in friezes above the text, it is very likely a copy of an older Chinese model, several versions of which have been identified. Although subsequent classical feature a very different style from that of this work, it foreshadows the golden age of the movement that came four centuries later, from the 12th century CE onwards.
The beginnings of the Japanese-inspired Heian period painting technique, retrospectively named , can be found initially in some aspects of Buddhist painting of the new esoteric Tendai and Shingon Buddhism sects, then more strongly in Pure Land Buddhism (); after a phase when Chinese techniques were copied, the art of the Japanese archipelago became progressively more delicate, lyrical, decorative with less powerful but more colorful compositions. Nevertheless, it was especially in secular art that the nascent was felt most strongly; its origins went back to the Fusuma and screens of the Heian Palace, covered with paintings on paper or silk, the themes of which were chosen from court poetry, annual rites, seasons or the famous lives and landscapes of the archipelago ().
This secular art then spread among the nobles, especially the ladies interested in the illustration of novels, and seems to have become prevalent early in the 10th century. As with religious painting, the themes of Japanese life, appreciated by the nobles, did not fit well with painting of Chinese sensibility, so much so that court artists developed to a certain extent a new national technique which appeared to be fashionable in the 11th century, for example in the seasonal landscapes of the panel paintings in the Hōō-dō or Amitabha Hall at the Byōdō-in temple, a masterpiece of primitive of the early 11th century.
Experts believe that illustrations of novels and painted narrative scrolls, or , developed in the vein of this secular art, linked to literature and poetry. The painting technique lent itself fully to the artistic tastes of the court in the 11th century, inclined to an emotional, melancholic and refined representation of relations within the palace, and formed a pictorial vector very suited to the narrative. Even though they are mentioned in the antique texts, no of the early Heian period (9th and 10th centuries) remains extant today; the oldest illustrating a novel mentioned in period sources is that of the , offered to the Empress between 872 and 907.
However, the stylistic mastery of later works (from the 12th century) leads most experts to believe that the "classical" art of grew during this period from the 10th century, first appearing in illustrations in novels or diaries produced by the ladies of the court. In addition, the initial themes remained close to poetry (seasons, Buddhism, nature and other themes). Therefore, the slow maturation of the movement of was closely linked to the emergence of Japanese culture and literature, as well as to the interest of ladies soon joined by professional painters from palace workshops () or temples, who created a more "professional" and successful technique. The art historians consider that the composition and painting techniques they see in the masterpieces of the late Heian period (second half of the 12th century) were already very mature.
First, the (designed between around 1120 and 1140), illustrating the famous eponymous novel, narrates the political and amorous intrigues of Prince Hikaru Genji; the rich and opaque colors affixed over the entire surface of the paper ( method), the intimacy and melancholy of the composition and finally the illustration of the emotional peaks of the novel taking place only inside the Heian Palace are characteristics of the subgenre of , reserved for court narratives usually written by aristocratic ladies. In that scroll, each painting illustrates a key episode of the novel and is followed by a calligraphic extract on paper richly decorated with gold and silver powder.
The already presents the composition techniques specific to the art of : an oblique point of view, the movement of the eyes guided by long diagonals from the top right to the bottom left, and even the removal of the roofs to represent the interior of buildings (). A second notable example of the paintings in the Heian period is the , which appears to be very similar to the , but presents softer and more decorative paintings giving pride of place to the representation of nature subtly emphasising the feelings of the characters.
In contrast with court paintings inspired by women's novels () there are other scrolls inspired by themes such as the daily lives of the people, historical chronicles, and the biographies of famous monks; ultimately, a style of depicting matters outside the palace and called ("men's painting").
The (middle of the 12th century), with dynamic and free lines, light colors and a decidedly popular and humorous tone, perfectly illustrate this movement, not hesitating to depict the life of the Japanese people in its most insignificant details. Here, the color is applied only in light touches that leave the paper bare, as the supple and free line dominates the composition, unlike the constructed paintings of the court. In addition, the text occupies very limited space, the artist painting rather long scenes without fixed limits.
Two other masterpieces emerged into the light of day during the second half of the 12th century.
First, the forms a monochrome sketch in indian ink gently caricaturing the customs of Buddhist monks, where the spontaneity of touch stands out. Secondly, the tells of a political conspiracy in the year 866 by offering a surprising mixture of the two genres and , with free lines and sometimes light, sometimes rich and opaque colors; this meeting of genres foreshadows the style that dominated a few decades later, during the Kamakura period.
While the authority of the court rapidly declined, the end of the Heian period (in 1185) was marked by the advent of the provincial lords (in particular, the Taira clan and the Minamoto clan), who acquired great power at the top of the state. Exploiting the unrest associated with the Genpei War, which provided fertile ground for religious proselytism, the six realms (or ) Buddhist paintings () – such as the Hell Scroll or the two versions of the , paintings – aimed to frighten the faithful with horror scenes.
Retracing the evolution of remains difficult, due to the few works that have survived. However, the obvious mastery of the classical scrolls of the end of the Heian period testifies to at least a century of maturation and pictorial research. These foundations permitted the artists of the ensuing Kamakura period to engage in sustained production in all of the themes.
The style of the time was characterized by two aspects: the synthesis of the genres of , and realism. Initially, the evolution marked previously by the (very late Heian era) was spreading very widely due to the importance given both to the freedom of brush strokes and the lightness of the tones (), as well as bright colors rendered by thick pigments for certain elements of the scenes (). However, the very refined appearance of the court paintings later gave way to more dynamic and popular works, at least in relation to the theme, in the manner of the . For example, the recounts the life and death of Sugawara no Michizane, Minister in the 9th century and tragic figure in Japanese history, revered in the manner of a god (). The rich colours, the tense contours, the search for movement and the very realistic details of the faces well illustrate this mixture of styles, especially as the paintings drew their inspiration from both Buddhism and Shinto.
The realistic trends that were in vogue in Kamakura art, perfectly embodied by sculpture, were exposed in the majority of the Kamakura ; indeed, the shogunate system held power over Japan, and the refined and codified art of the court gave way to more fluidity and dynamism. The greater simplicity advocated in the arts led to a more realistic and human representation (anger, pain or size). If the activity related to religion was prolific, then so too were the orders of the (noble warriors). Several of historical or military chronicles are among the most famous, notably the (no longer extant) and the ; of the latter, the scroll kept at the Museum of Fine Arts, Boston remains highly regarded for its mastery of composition (which reaches a crescendo at the dramatic climax of the scroll, i.e. the burning of the palace and the bloody battle between foot soldiers), and for its contribution to present day understanding of Japanese medieval weapons and armour. Akiyama Terukazu describes it as "a masterpiece on the subject of the world's military." In the same spirit, a noble warrior had the designed to recount his military exploits during the Mongol invasions of Japan. Kamakura art particularly flourished in relation to realistic portraiture (); if the characters in the therefore evolved towards greater pictorial realism, some, such as the , or the attributed to Fujiwara no Nobuzane, directly present portrait galleries according to the iconographic techniques of the time.
A similar change was felt in religion as the esoteric Buddhist sects of the Heian era (Tendai and Shingon Buddhism) gave way to Pure Land Buddhism (), which primarily addressed the people by preaching simple practices of devotion to the Amida Buddha. These very active sects used intensively during the 13th and 14th centuries to illustrate and disseminate their doctrines.
Several religious practices influenced the Kamakura : notably, public sermons and picture explaining sessions (絵解, ) led the artists to use scrolls of larger size than usual, and to represent the protagonists of the story in a somewhat disproportionate way compared with of the standard sizes, to enable those protagonists to be seen from a distance, in a typically Japanese non-realistic perspective (such as the ). The religious of the Kamakura period focus on the foundation of the temples, or the lives of famous monks. During that period, many of the religious institutions commissioned the workshops of painters (often monk-painters) to create recounting their foundation, or the biography of the founding monk. Among the best-known works on such themes are the illustrated biographies of Ippen, , and Xuanzang, as well as the and the .
The Ippen biography, painted by a monk, remains remarkable for its influences, so far rare, from the Song dynasty (via the wash technique) and the Tang dynasty (the style), as well as by its very precise representations of forts in many Japanese landscapes. (1976). 9780834810037, Weatherhill. ISBN 9780834810037 As for the , it addresses the declining aristocracy in idealising the figure of the monk aesthete Saigyō by the beauty of its landscapes and its calligraphic poetry.
Towards the middle of the Kamakura period, there was a revival of interest in the Heian court, which already appeared to be a peak of Japanese civilization, and its refined culture. Thus the , which traces the life and intrigues of Murasaki Shikibu, author of The Tale of Genji (10th century), largely reflects the painting techniques of the time, notably the , but in a more decorative and extroverted style. Other works followed that trend, such as , the or the .
A professional current was nevertheless maintained by the Tosa school: the only one still to claim the , it produced many to the order of the court or the temples (this school of painters led the imperial until the 18th century). Tosa Mitsunobu notably produced several works on the foundation of temples: the (1517), a scroll of the (1497), the (1487) or a version of the (1503); he paid great attention to details and colours, despite a common composition. In a more general way, the illustration of novels in the classic style (such as the many versions of the or ) persisted during late medieval times.
If therefore ceased to be the dominant artistic media in Japan since the end of the Kamakura period, it is in the illustration movement of ( meaning "to tell stories") that developed a new popular vigour in the 15th and 16th centuries (the Muromachi period); the term (literally, "the book of illustrations of Nara") sometimes designated them in a controversial way (because they were anachronistic and combined books with scrolls), or more precisely as or . These are small, symbolic and funny tales, intended to pass the time focusing on mythology, folklore, legends, religious beliefs or even contemporary society. This particular form of dates back to Heian times, but it was under Muromachi that it gained real popularity.
The relative popularity of seems to have stemmed from a burgeoning lack of enthusiasm for hectic or religious stories; the people had become more responsive to themes of dreams, laughter and the supernatural (a number of depict all sorts of and folk creatures), as well as social caricatures and popular novels. Among the preserved examples are such as and , or supernatural Buddhist tales such as the or the . From the point of view of art historians, the creativity of classical scrolls is felt even less in , because even though the composition is similar, the lack of harmony of colors and the overloaded appearance are detrimental; it seems that the production is often the work of amateurs. However, a field of study of and the pictorial style exists on the fringes and stands out from the framework of .
In the early 17th century, Iwasa Matabē established a workshop and produced large-scale, lavish picture scrolls. He is often regarded as a precursor to ukiyo-e and had a significant influence on later Japanese painting. His major works include Jōruri Monogatari Emaki, a romantic drama, as well as Yamanaka Tokiwa Monogatari Emaki and Horie Monogatari Emaki, both depicting tales of revenge following parental murder. Jōruri Monogatari Emaki is noted for its brilliant use of vibrant colors, while Yamanaka Tokiwa Monogatari Emaki is highly regarded for its dynamic and expressive portrayal of characters.
Various other artists, notably Tawaraya Sōtatsu and Yosa Buson, were still interested in the narrative scroll until around the 17th century. The Kanō school used narrative scrolls in the same way; Kanō Tan'yū realised several scrolls on the Tokugawa battles, particularly that of Sekigahara in his , where he was inspired in places by the (13th century).
were initially strongly influenced by China, as were the Japanese arts of the time; the '''' incorporates many of the naive, simple styles of the [[Tang dynasty]], although dissonances can be discerned, especially in relation to colours. From the Heian period onwards, came to be dissociated from China, mainly in their themes. Chinese scrolls were intended mainly to illustrate the transcendent principles of Buddhism and the serenity of the landscapes, suggesting the grandeur and the spirituality. The Japanese, on the other hand, had refocused their scrolls on everyday life and man, conveying drama, humour and feelings. Thus, began to be inspired by literature, poetry, nature and especially everyday life; in short, they formed an intimate art, sometimes in opposition to the search for Chinese spiritual greatness.
The first Japanese themes in the Heian period were very closely linked to literature and poetry: paintings of the seasons, the annual calendar of ceremonies, the countryside and finally the famous landscapes of the Japanese archipelago (). Subsequently, the Kamakura warriors and the new Pure Land Buddhist sects diversified the subjects even more widely. Despite the wide range of themes, specialists like to categorise them, both in substance and in form. An effective method of differentiating comes back to the study of the subjects by referring to the canons of the time. The categorisation proposed by Okudaira and Fukui thus distinguishes between secular and religious paintings:
A third category covers more heterogeneous works, mixing religion and narration or religion and popular humour.
In the first place, amateur painters, perhaps the initiators of the classical , are to be found at the emperor's court in Heian, among the aristocrats versed in the various arts. Period sources mention in particular painting competitions () where the nobles competed around a common theme from a poem, as described by Murasaki Shikibu in The Tale of Genji. Their work seems to focus more on the illustration of novels () and diaries (), rather feminine literature of the court. Monks were also able to produce paintings without any patronage.
Secondly, in medieval Japan there were literally 'painting office'; during the Kamakura period, professional production dominated greatly, and several categories of workshops were distinguished: those officially attached to the palace (), those attached to the great temples and shrines (), or finally those hosted by a few senior figures. The study of certain colophons and period texts makes it possible to associate many with these professional workshops, and even sometimes to understand how they function.
When produced by the temple workshops, were intended mainly as proselytism, or to disseminate a doctrine, or even as an act of faith, because copying illustrated sutras must allow communion with the deities (a theory even accredits the idea that the would have aimed to pacify evil spirits). Proselytising, favoured by the emergence of the Pure Land Buddhist sects during the Kamakura era, changed the methods of production, because works of proselytism were intended to be copied and disseminated widely in many associated temples, explaining the large number of more or less similar copies on the lives of great monks and the founding of the important temples.
Various historians emphasise the use of in sessions of e-toki, during which a learned monk detailed the contents of the scrolls to a popular audience. Specialists thus explicate the unusually large dimensions of the different versions of the or the . As for the workshops of the court, they satisfied the orders of the palace, whether for the illustration of novels or historical chronicles, such as the . A form of exploitation of the story could also motivate the sponsor: for example, were produced for the Minamoto clan (winner of the Genpei War), and the was created to extol the deeds of a samurai in search of recognition from the . These works were, it seems, intended to be read by nobles. Nevertheless, Seckel and Hasé assert that the separation between the secular and the religious remains unclear and undoubtedly does not correspond to an explicit practice: thus, the aristocrats regularly ordered to offer them to a temple, and the religious scrolls do not refrain from representing popular things. So, for example, the presents a rich overview of medieval civilization.
Colophons and comparative studies sometimes allow for the deduction of the name of the artist of an : for example, the monk signed the , historians designate as the author of the and the , or for part of the . Nevertheless, the life of these artists remains poorly known, at most they seem to be of noble extraction. Such a background is particularly implied by the always very precise depictions in of the imperial palace (interior architecture, clothing and rituals) or official bodies (notably the kebiishi). The illustrates that point well, as the precision of both religious and aristocratic motifs suggests that the painter is close to those two worlds.
Perhaps a more famous artist is Fujiwara no Nobuzane, aristocrat of the Fujiwara clan and author of the , as well as various suites of realistic portraits (nise-e, a school he founded in honour of his father Fujiwara no Takanobu). Among the temple workshops, it is known that the Kōzan-ji workshop was particularly prolific, under the leadership of the monk Myōe, a great scholar who brought in many works from Song dynasty China. Thus, the Jōnin brushstrokes on the or the portrait of Myōe reveal the first Song influences in Japanese painting. However, the crucial lack of information and documents on these rare known artists leads Japanese art historians rather to identify styles, workshops, and schools of production.
From the 14th century, the Kyūtei edokoro, and even for a time the of the , were headed by the Tosa school, which, as mentioned above, continued painting and the manufacture of despite the decline of the genre. The Tosa school artists are much better known; Tosa Mitsunobu, for example, produced a large number of works commissioned by temples (including the ) or nobles (including the ). The competing Kanō school also offered a such few pieces, on command: art historians have shown strong similarities between the (12th century) and the (17th century) by Kanō Tan'yū of the Kanō school, probably to suggest a link between the Minamoto clan and Tokugawa clan clans, members of which were, respectively, the first and last shoguns who ruled all of Japan.
The most famous colors are taken from mineral pigments: for example azurite for blue, vermilion for red, realgar for yellow, malachite for green, amongst others. These thick pigments, named in Japanese, are not soluble in water and require a thick binder, generally an animal glue; the amount of glue required depends on how finely the pigments have been ground.
As are intended to be rolled up, the colours must be applied to them in a thin, flat layer in order to avoid any cracking in the medium term, which limits the use of patterns (reliefs) predominant in Western painting. As for the India ink, also invented in China around the 1st century CE, it results from a simple mixture of binder and wood smoke, the dosage of which depends on the manufacturer. Essential for calligraphy, it is also important in Asian pictorial arts where the line often takes precedence; Japanese artists apply it with a brush, varying the thickness of the line and the dilution of the ink to produce a colour from a dark black to a pale gray strongly absorbed by the paper.
Scrolls of paper or tissue remain relatively fragile, in particular after the application of paint. are therefore lined with one or more layers of strong paper, in a very similar way to (Japanese hanging scrolls): the painted paper or silk is stretched, glued onto the lining, and then dried and brushed, normally by a specialized craftsman, known as a (literally, 'master in sutra'). The long format of poses specific problems: generally, sheets of painted paper or silk long are lined separately, then assembled using strips of long-fibre Japanese paper, known for its strength. The lining process simply requires the application of an animal glue which, as it dries, also allows the painted paper or silk to be properly stretched. Assembly of the is finalised by the selection of the jiku, which is quite thin, and the connection of the hyōshi, which protects the work once it is rolled up with a himo; for the most precious pieces painted with gold and silver powder, a further extra=literally, 'inside cover' is often made of silk and decorated on the inside. (1997). 9784096997017, Shōgakkan. ISBN 9784096997017
Different currents of paintings are part of the according to the times (about the 10th and 14th centuries), and are found in . The style, composition and technique vary greatly, but it is possible to identify major principles. Thus, in relation to style, the Heian period produced a contrast between refined court painting and dynamic painting of subjects outside the court, while the Kamakura period saw a synthesis of the two approaches and the contribution of new realistic influences of the Chinese wash paintings of the Song dynasty. In relation to composition, the artists could alternate calligraphy and painting so as to illustrate only the most striking moments of the story, or else create long painted sections where several scenes blended together and flowed smoothly. Finally, in relation to technique, the classification of , although complex, allows for two approaches to be identified: paintings favoring colour, and those favoring line for the purpose of dynamism.
The particular format of the , long strips of paintings without fixed limits, requires solving a number of compositional problems in order to maintain the ease and clarity of the narrative, and which have given rise to a coherent art form over several centuries. In summary, according to E. Saint-Marc: "We had to build a vocabulary, a syntax, solve a whole series of technical problems, invent a discipline that is both literary and plastic, an aesthetic mode which finds its conventions ... in turn invented and modelled, frozen by use, then remodelled, to make it an instrument of refined expression."
fully transcribed the lyrical and refined aesthetic of the court, which was characterized by a certain restraint, introspection and the expression of feelings, bringing together above all works inspired by "romantic" literature such as the . The dominant impression of this genre is expressed in Japanese by the term , a kind of fleeting melancholy born from the feeling of the impermanence of things. These works mainly adopted the so-called (constructed painting) technique, with rich and opaque colours. In of the 13th century, in which the style was brought up-to-date, the same technique was used but in a sometimes less complete manner, the colours more directly expressing feelings and the artists using a more decorative aesthetic, such as with the very important use of gold dust in the .
A characteristic element of the resides in the drawing of the faces, very impersonal, that specialists often compare to Noh masks. Indeed, according to the technique, two or three lines were enough to represent the eyes and the nose in a stylized way; Elise Grilli notes the melancholy of this approach. The desired effect is still uncertain, but probably reflects the great restraint of feelings and personalities in the palace, or even allows readers to identify more easily with the characters. In some of the Heian period, the artists rather expressed the feelings or the passions in the positions as well as in the pleats and folds of the clothes, in harmony with the mood of the moment.
If the term is well attested in the texts of the time, and seems to come from the illustrations of novels by the ladies of the court from the 10th century, the origins of the are more obscure: they arise a priori from the interest of the nobles in Japanese provincial life from the 11th century, as well as from local folk legends; moreover, several very detailed scenes from the clearly show that its author can only have been a palace regular, aristocrat or monk. In any case, there are still several collections of these folk tales of the time, such as the .
Unlike the court paintings, the more spontaneous scrolls such as the or the display much more realism in the drawing of the characters, and depict, amongst other themes, humour and burlesque, with people's feelings (such as anger, joy and fear) expressed more spontaneously and directly.
Realistic painting is best displayed in the portraits known as , a movement initiated by Fujiwara no Takanobu and his son Fujiwara no Nobuzane. These two artists and their descendants produced a number of of a particular genre: they were suites of portraits of famous people made in a rather similar style, with almost geometric simplicity of clothing, and extreme realism of the face. The essence of the was really to capture the intimate personality of the subject with great economy.
Among the most famous scrolls are the , composed of 131 portraits of emperors, governors, ministers and senior courtiers (by and , 14th century), and the by Nobuzane, whose ink painting () enhanced with very discreet colour illustrates perfectly the lines. Additionally, there is the , a work of a more idealized than realistic style, which forms a portrait gallery of the Thirty-Six Immortals of Poetry. More generally, humans are one of the elementary subjects of , and many works of the Kamakura period incorporate techniques, such as the or the .
During the Kamakura period, the different stages of were still widely observed, despite variations (lighter colours, lines more similar to Song dynasty wash paintings, etc.).
The second approach to monochrome paintings is more constructed, with fine, regular strokes sketching a complete and coherent scene, very similar to the first sketch in the works before the application of the colours; according to some art historians, it is also possible that these are simply unfinished. The fits perfectly with this approach, accepting only a few fine touches of red, as do the and the . Several somewhat amateurish illustrations of classic novels remain from late medieval times and the decline of the .
By contrast with Western painting, lines and contours in ink play an essential role in , monochrome or not. Sometimes, however, contours are not drawn as usual: thus, in the , the absence of contours is used by the artist to evoke the Shinto spirit in Japanese landscapes. Originally from China, this pictorial technique is now called ('boneless painting').
The balance between texts and images thus varied greatly from one work to another. The author had a broad "syntax of movement and time" which allowed him to adapt the form to the story and to the feelings conveyed. The scrolls with continuous illustrations () naturally made the transitions more ambiguous, because each reader can reveal a larger or smaller portion of the paintings, more or less quickly. In the absence of clear separation between scenes, the mode of reading must be suggested in the paintings in order to maintain a certain coherence.
Two kinds of links between scenes were used by the artists. First, there were links by separation using elements of the scenery (traditionally, river, countryside, mist, buildings) were very common. Secondly, the artists used a palette of transitional elements suggested by the figures or the arrangement of objects. Thus, it was not uncommon for characters to point the finger at the following painting or for them to be represented travelling to create the link between two cities, or for the buildings to be oriented to the left to suggest departure and to the right to suggest the arrival. More generally, Bauer identifies the notion of off-screen (the part of painting not yet visible) that the painter must bring without losing coherence. (1998). 9782877303675 ISBN 9782877303675
The arrangement of the elements in an scene is based on the point of view, including the technique known as . As mentioned above, scenes are most commonly painted when viewed from above (bird's eye view) in order to maximize the space available for painting, despite the reduced height of the scrolls, while leaving part of the background visible. (1998). 9784831507952, Perikan-sha. ISBN 9784831507952
In the interior scenes, the simplest technique was developed by from the Chinese Tang dynasty artists: only three walls of the room are drawn, in parallel perspective; the point of view is located in the place of the fourth wall, a little higher up. When the need to draw several planes – for example the back of the room or a door open to the next one – arose, the artists proceeded by reducing the size (of the scale). The more general scenes in which the story evolves, such as landscapes, can be rendered from a very distant point of view (as in the or the ). In the and the , the painter opted mainly for a side view, and the development of the story depends on a succession of communicating planes.
However, the Japanese artists imagined a new arrangement for which quickly became the norm for portraying interiors. It was called (literally, 'roof removed'), and involves not representing the roofs of buildings, and possibly the walls in the foreground if necessary, to enable a depiction of the interior. (résumé en français) Unlike the previous arrangement, the point of view located outside the buildings, still high up, because the primary purpose of is to represent two separate narrative spaces – for example two adjoining rooms, or else inside and outside. The genesis of this technique is still little known (it already appears in the biography on wooden panel of Prince Shōtoku), but it already appeared with great mastery on the Court style paintings () in the 12th century. In the , the composition is closely linked to the text and indirectly suggests the mood of the scene. When Kaoru visits Ukifune, while their love is emerging, the artist shows the reader two narrative spaces thanks to the : on the veranda, Kaoru is calm, posed in a peaceful space; inside the building, by contrast, Ukifune and her lady-in-waiting, are painted on a smaller surface, in turmoil, in a confused composition which reinforces their agitation. More generally, an unrealistic composition (for example from two points of view) makes it possible to suggest strong or sad feelings.
The technique was also used in a variety of other ways, for example with a very high point of view to reinforce the partitioning of spaces, even in a single room, or by giving the landscape a more important place. Ultimately, the primary goal remained to render two narrative stages, and therefore two distinct spaces, in the same painting. was therefore used extensively, sometimes even as a simple stylistic instance unrelated to feelings or text, unlike in the .
Finally, the scale of an also makes it possible to suggest depth and guide the arrangement of the elements. In Japanese painting, the scale depends not only on the depth of the scene, but also often on the importance of the elements in the composition or in the story, unlike the realistic renderings in Chinese landscape scrolls. Thus, the main character can be enlarged compared with the others, depending on what the artist wants to express: in the , Ippen is sometimes depicted in the background in a landscape the same size as trees or buildings, so that the reader can clearly identify it. Changes in scale can also convey the mood of the moment, such as the strength of will and distress of Sugawara no Michizane in the . For Saint-Marc, "each element takes more the importance it has in itself in the painter's mind", freeing itself from the rules of realistic composition.
Japanese artists also use other composition techniques to energize a story and set the rhythm: the same characters are represented in a series of varied sets (typically outdoors), a technique known as repetition (). In the , a composition centered on Kanazawa Castle gradually shows the capture of the castle by the troops of Minamoto no Yoshiie, creating a gradual and dramatic effect. In the , the tower to which Kibi no Makibi (or Kibi Daijin) is assigned is painted to depict each challenge won by the protagonist. (2025). 9782877305686 ISBN 9782877305686
Another narrative technique characteristic of is called : it consists of representing the same character several times in a single scene, in order to suggest a sequence of actions (fights, discussions, trips) with great space savings. The movement of the eye is then most often circular, and the scenes portray different moments. can equally suggest either a long moment in one scene, such as the nun in the who remains in retreat in Tōdai-ji for several hours, or a series of brief but intense actions, such as the fights in the and the . In the , the artist offers a succession of almost "cinematographic" shots alternately showing the distress of Zenmyō, a young Chinese girl, and the boat carrying her beloved away on the horizon.
In East Asia, calligraphy is a predominant art that aristocrats learn to master from childhood, and styles and arrangements of characters are widely codified, although varied. In the context of , calligraphic texts can have several purposes: to introduce the story, to describe the painted scenes, to convey religious teachings or to be presented in the form of poems ( poetry remains the most representative of ancient Japan). For the richly decorated court-style paintings (), like the , the papers were carefully prepared and decorated with gold and silver dust.
The text of an had more than merely a function of decoration and narration; it could also influence the composition of the paintings. The have been widely studied on this point: art historians have shown a link between the feeling conveyed by a text and the dominant colour of the accompanying paint, a colour which is also used for the decorated paper. In addition, the composition of the paintings may make it possible to understand them in accordance with the text: for example, the characters in the story may have been painted on a scene in a palace in the order of their appearance in the text. Other specialists in turn have insisted on the importance of the text in the positioning of the paintings, an important point in the Buddhist , in which the transmission of dogmas and religious teachings remained an essential goal of the artist.
The originality of art is also to be sought in its spirit, "the life of an era translated into formal language". The court style paintings () are part of the aesthetic of (literally 'the pathos of things'), a state of mind that is difficult to express, but which can be regarded as a penchant for sad beauty, the melancholy born of the feeling that everything beautiful is impermanent. D. and V. Elisseeff define this aspect of as the , the feeling of inadequacy, often materialized by a properly Japanese humour. But outside the court, the popular style (), the art of everyday life, come closer to the human and universal state of mind.
A large project of the Kanagawa University made a very exhaustive study of the most interesting paintings across fifteen major categories of elements, including dwellings, elements of domestic life and elements of life outside the home, according to ages (children, workers, old people) and social class. Although the main characters are most often nobles, famous monks or warriors, the presence of ordinary people is more or less tangible in an immense majority of works, allowing a study of a very wide variety of daily activities: peasants, craftsmen, merchants, beggars, women, old people and children can appear in turn. In the , the activity of women is particularly interesting, the artist showing them preparing meals, washing clothes or breastfeeding. The presents 142 artisans from the Muromachi period, ranging from a blacksmith to a maker.
The clothing of the characters in are typically true-to-life and accurately depict contemporary clothing and its relationship to the social categories of the time. In military-themed scrolls, the weapons and armour of the warriors are also depicted with accuracy; the , for instance, depicts many details, in particular the armour and harnesses of horses, whilst the depicts the fighting styles of the Japanese during the Mongol invasions of Japan, whose tactics were still dominated by the use of the bow. Finally, the offers a unique insight into certain details of the uniforms of police officers (known as ). The aesthetics, alongside the rendering of people's emotions and expressions of feelings, also show a distinct cleavage between the common people and the aristocracy. For depicting commoners, emotions such as fear, anguish, excitement and joy are rendered directly and with clarity, whereas aristocratic instead emphasise refined, but less direct, themes such as classical romance, the holding of ceremonies, and nostalgia for the Heian period.
The architecture of the places used as a setting for an can present a great level of visual detail in relation to period structures. The thus offers an insight into the architectural style, marked by a mixture of influence from Tang dynasty and traditional Japan, such as bark roofs. More interesting still, the details a wide variety of buildings (temples, shrines, palaces, dwellings) taken from life with an unprecedented realism by the painter monk , so that the buildings preserved today are easily recognizable. can also include various elements of life in the city or in the country, such as the market in the shopping district of Osaka. Another notable example, the gives a unique sketch of the great Buddha original of Tōdai-ji, which burned in 1180.
very often take historical or religious events as a source of inspiration: the narrative value of the story (the true story) informs contemporary historians as much about the story as about the way of perceiving this story at the time (there is sometimes a gap of several centuries between the time of the story and the time of the painter). Amongst the most interesting information in an may be details of the construction of ancient temples, of religious practices and finally of the unfolding of battles and major historical events, such as the Mongol invasions, the [[Genpei War]] or even the Ōtenmon political conspiracy.
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