Product Code Database
Egypt ( , ), officially the Arab Republic of Egypt, is a country spanning the Northeast Africa and Western Asia via the Sinai Peninsula. It is bordered by the Mediterranean Sea to the north, the Gaza Strip of Palestine and Israel to the northeast, the Red Sea to the east, Sudan to the south, and Libya to the west; the Gulf of Aqaba in the northeast separates Egypt from Jordan and Saudi Arabia. Cairo is the capital, largest city, and leading cultural center, while Alexandria is the second-largest city and an important hub of industry and tourism. With over 107 million inhabitants, Egypt is the third-most populous country in Africa and 15th-most populated in the world.
Egypt has one of the longest histories of any country, tracing its heritage along the Nile Delta back to the 6th–4th millennia BCE. Considered a cradle of civilisation, Ancient Egypt saw some of the earliest developments of writing, agriculture, urbanisation, organised religion and central government. Egypt was an early and important centre of Christianity, later adopting Islam from the seventh century onwards. Cairo became the capital of the Fatimid Caliphate in the tenth century and of the subsequent Mamluk Sultanate in the 13th century. Egypt then became part of the Ottoman Empire in 1517, until its local ruler Muhammad Ali established modern Egypt as an autonomous Khedivate in 1867. The country was then occupied by the British Empire along with British Sudan and gained independence in 1922 as a monarchy.
Following the 1952 revolution, Egypt declared itself a republic. Between 1958 and 1961 Egypt merged with Syria to form the United Arab Republic. Egypt fought several armed conflicts with Israel in 1948, Suez Crisis, Six-Day War and 1973, and occupied the Gaza Strip intermittently until 1967. In 1978, Egypt signed the Camp David Accords, which recognised Israel in exchange for its withdrawal from the occupied Sinai. After the Arab Spring, which led to the 2011 Egyptian revolution and overthrow of Hosni Mubarak, the country faced a protracted period of political unrest; its first democratic election in 2012 resulted in the short-lived, Muslim Brotherhood-aligned government of Mohamed Morsi, which was overthrown by the military after mass protests in 2013. The current government is a semi-presidential republic led by Abdel Fattah el-Sisi, who was elected in 2014 but is widely regarded as authoritarian.Sources that categorize Sisi as a dictator:
Egypt is a developing country with the second-largest economy in Africa. It is considered to be a regional power in the Middle East, North Africa and the Muslim world, and a middle power worldwide. Islam is the State religion and Arabic is official language. Egypt is a founding member of the United Nations, the Non-Aligned Movement, the Arab League, the African Union, Organisation of Islamic Cooperation, World Youth Forum, and a member of BRICS.
"" (; "مِصر") is the Classical Arabic and modern official name of Egypt, while "" (; مَصر) is the local pronunciation in Egyptian Arabic. The current name of Egypt, Misr/Misir/Misru, stems from the Ancient Semitic name for it. The term originally connoted "Civilization" or "Metropolis". Classical Arabic (Egyptian Arabic ) is directly cognate with the Biblical Hebrew Miṣráyīm (מִצְרַיִם / מִצְרָיִם), meaning "the two straits", a reference to the predynastic separation of Upper and Lower Egypt. Also mentioned in several Semitic languages as Mesru, Misir and Masar. The oldest attestation of this name for Egypt is the Akkadian "mi-iṣ-ru" ("miṣru")The ending of the Hebrew form is either a dual or an ending identical to the dual in form (perhaps a locative), and this has sometimes been taken as referring to the two kingdoms of Upper and Lower Egypt. However, the application of the (possibly) "dual" ending to some toponyms and other words, a development peculiar to Hebrew, does not in fact imply any "two-ness" about the place. The ending is found, for example, in the Hebrew words for such single entities as "water" ("מַיִם"), "noon" ("צָהֳרַיִם"), "sky/heaven" ("שָׁמַיִם"), and in the qere – but not the original "ketiv" – of "Jerusalem" ("ירושלים"). It should also be noted that the dual ending – which may or may not be what the -áyim in "Mitzráyim" actually represents – was available to other Semitic languages, such as Arabic, but was not applied to Egypt. See inter alia Aaron Demsky ("Hebrew Names in the Dual Form and the Toponym Yerushalayim" in Demsky (ed.) These Are the Names: Studies in Jewish Onomastics, Vol. 3 (Ramat Gan, 2002), pp. 11–20), Avi Hurvitz ( A Concise Lexicon of Late Biblical Hebrew: Linguistic Innovations in the Writings of the Second Temple Period (Brill, 2014), p. 128) and Nadav Na'aman ("Shaaraim – The Gateway to the Kingdom of Judah" in The Journal of Hebrew Scriptures, Vol. 8 (2008), article no. 24 , pp. 2–3). related to miṣru/miṣirru/miṣaru, meaning "border" or "frontier".
The Neo-Assyrian Empire used the derived term , Mu-ṣur.As in inscriptions such as the Rassam cylinder of Ashurbanipal. For transcription, the word being written Mu-s,ur [4]
By about 6000 BCE, a Neolithic culture took root in the Nile Valley. During the Neolithic era, several predynastic cultures developed independently in Upper and Lower Egypt. The Badarian culture and the successor Naqada series are generally regarded as precursors to Ancient Egypt. The earliest known Lower Egyptian site, Merimda, predates the Badarian by about seven hundred years. Contemporaneous Lower Egyptian communities coexisted with their southern counterparts for more than two thousand years, remaining culturally distinct, but maintaining frequent contact through trade. The earliest known evidence of Egyptian hieroglyphic inscriptions appeared during the predynastic period on Naqada III pottery vessels, dated to about 3200 BCE.
A unified kingdom was founded BCE by King Menes, leading to a series of dynasties that ruled Egypt for the next three millennia. Egyptian culture flourished during this long period and remained distinctively Egyptian in its religion, arts, language and customs. The first two ruling dynasties of a unified Egypt set the stage for the Old Kingdom period, BCE, which constructed many pyramids, most notably the Third Dynasty pyramid of Djoser and the Fourth Dynasty Giza Necropolis.
The First Intermediate Period ushered in a time of political upheaval for about 150 years. Stronger Nile floods and stabilisation of government, however, brought back renewed prosperity for the country in the Middle Kingdom BCE, reaching a peak during the reign of Pharaoh Amenemhat III. A second period of disunity heralded the arrival of the first foreign ruling dynasty in Egypt, that of the Semitic Hyksos. The Hyksos invaders took over much of Lower Egypt around 1650 BCE and founded a new capital at Avaris. They were driven out by an Upper Egyptian force led by Ahmose I, who founded the Eighteenth Dynasty and relocated the capital from Memphis to Thebes.
The New Kingdom BCE began with the Eighteenth Dynasty, marking the rise of Egypt as an international power that expanded during its greatest extension to an empire as far south as Tombos in Nubia, and included parts of the Levant in the east. This period is noted for some of the most well known , including Hatshepsut, Thutmose III, Akhenaten and his wife Nefertiti, Tutankhamun and Ramesses II. The first historically attested expression of monotheism came during this period as Atenism. Frequent contacts with other nations brought new ideas to the New Kingdom. The country was later invaded and conquered by Ancient Libya, Nubians and , but native Egyptians eventually drove them out and regained control of their country.
In 525 BCE, the Achaemenid Empire, led by Cambyses II, began their conquest of Egypt, eventually capturing the pharaoh Psamtik III at the battle of Pelusium. Cambyses II then assumed the formal title of pharaoh, but ruled Egypt from his home of Susa in Persia (modern Iran), leaving Egypt under the control of a . The entire Twenty-seventh Dynasty of Egypt, from 525 to 402 BCE, save for Petubastis III, was an entirely Achaemenid-ruled period, with the Achaemenid emperors all being granted the title of pharaoh. A few temporarily successful revolts against the Achaemenids marked the fifth century BCE, but Egypt was never able to permanently overthrow the Achaemenids.
The Thirtieth Dynasty was the last native ruling dynasty during the Pharaonic epoch. It fell to the Achaemenids again in 343 BCE after the last native Pharaoh, King Nectanebo II, was defeated in battle. This Thirty-first Dynasty of Egypt, however, did not last long, as the Achaemenids were toppled several decades later by Alexander the Great. The Macedonian Greek general of Alexander, Ptolemy I Soter, founded the Ptolemaic dynasty.
The last ruler from the Ptolemaic line was Cleopatra VII, who committed suicide following the burial of her lover Mark Antony, after Octavian had captured Alexandria and her mercenary forces had fled. The Ptolemies faced rebellions of native Egyptians and were involved in foreign and civil wars that led to the decline of the kingdom and its annexation by Rome.
Christianity was brought to Egypt by Saint Mark the Evangelist in the 1st century. See drop-down essay on "Islamic Conquest and the Ottoman Empire" Diocletian's reign (284–305 CE) marked the transition from the Roman Empire to the Byzantine Empire era in Egypt, when a great number of Egyptian Christians were persecuted. The New Testament had by then been translated into Egyptian. After the Council of Chalcedon in CE 451, a distinct Egyptian Coptic Church was firmly established.Kamil, Jill. Coptic Egypt: History and Guide. Cairo: American University in Cairo, 1997. p. 39
In 639 an army was sent in Egypt by the second caliph, Umar, under the command of Amr ibn al-As. They defeated a Roman army at the battle of Heliopolis. Amr next proceeded in the direction of Alexandria, which surrendered to him by a treaty signed on 8 November 641. Alexandria was regained for the Byzantine Empire in 645 but was retaken by Amr in 646. In 654 an invasion fleet sent by Constans II was repulsed.
The Arabs founded the capital of Egypt called Fustat, which was later burned down during the Crusades. Cairo was later built in the year 969 to grow to become the largest and richest city in the Arab caliphate, second only to Baghdad. in Cairo, of Ahmad Ibn Tulun|left]] The Abbasid period was marked by new taxations, and the Copts revolted again in the fourth year of Abbasid rule. At the beginning of the 9th century the practice of ruling Egypt through a governor was resumed under Abdallah ibn Tahir, who decided to reside at Baghdad, sending a deputy to Egypt to govern for him. In 828 another Egyptian revolt broke out, and in 831 the Copts joined with native Muslims against the government. Eventually the power loss of the Abbasids in Baghdad led for general upon general to take over rule of Egypt, yet being under Abbasid allegiance, the Tulunid dynasty (868–905) and Ikhshidid dynasty (935–969) were among the most successful to defy the Abbasid Caliph. in Cairo, of Al-Hakim bi-Amr Allah, the sixth caliph, as renovated by Dawoodi Bohra ]]
Muslim rulers remained in control of Egypt for the next six centuries, with Cairo as the seat of the Fatimid Caliphate. With the end of the Ayyubid dynasty, the , a Turkic people-Circassians military caste, took control about 1250. By the late 13th century, Egypt linked the Red Sea, India, Malaya, and East Indies.
The mid-14th-century Black Death killed about 40% of the country's population.
After the French were expelled, power was seized in 1805 by Muhammad Ali Pasha, an Albanian military commander of the Ottoman army in Egypt. Muhammad Ali massacred the Mamluks and established a dynasty that was to rule Egypt until the revolution of 1952. The introduction in 1820 of long-staple cotton transformed its agriculture into a cash-crop monoculture before the end of the century, concentrating land ownership and shifting production towards international markets.
Egypt under the Muhammad Ali dynasty remained nominally an Ottoman province. It was granted the status of an autonomous vassal state or Khedivate (1867–1914) in 1867. The Suez Canal, built in partnership with the French, was completed in 1869. Its construction was financed by European banks. Large sums also went to patronage and corruption. New taxes caused popular discontent. In 1875 Isma'il avoided bankruptcy by selling all Egypt's shares in the canal to the British government. Within three years this led to the imposition of British and French controllers who sat in the Egyptian cabinet, and, "with the financial power of the bondholders behind them, were the real power in the Government",Nejla M. Abu Izzeddin, Nasser of the Arabs, p. 2. Other circumstances like epidemic diseases (cattle disease in the 1880s), floods and wars drove the economic downturn and increased Egypt's dependency on foreign debt even further.
Local dissatisfaction with the Khedive and with European intrusion led to the formation of the first nationalist groupings in 1879, with Ahmed ʻUrabi a prominent figure. After increasing tensions and nationalist revolts, the United Kingdom invaded Egypt in 1882, crushing the Egyptian army at the Battle of Tell El Kebir and militarily occupying the country.Anglo French motivation: Derek Hopwood, Egypt: Politics and Society 1945–1981. London, 1982, George Allen & Unwin. p. 11. Following this, the Khedivate became a de facto British protectorate under nominal Ottoman sovereignty.De facto protectorate: Joan Wucher King, Historical Dictionary of Egypt. Metuchen, NJ; 1984; Scarecrow. p. 17. In 1899 the Anglo-Egyptian Condominium Agreement was signed: the Agreement stated that Sudan would be jointly governed by the Khedivate of Egypt and the United Kingdom. However, actual control of Sudan was in British hands only. In 1906, the Denshawai incident prompted many neutral Egyptians to join the nationalist movement.
After World War I, Saad Zaghlul and the Wafd Party led the Egyptian nationalist movement to a majority at the local Legislative Assembly. When the British exiled Zaghlul and his associates to Malta on 8 March 1919, the country arose in its first modern revolution. The revolt led the UK government to issue a unilateral declaration of Egypt's independence on 22 February 1922. Following independence from the United Kingdom, Sultan Fuad I assumed the title of King of Egypt; despite being nominally independent, the Kingdom was still under British military occupation and the UK still had great influence over the state. The new government drafted and implemented a constitution in 1923 based on a parliamentary system. The nationalist Wafd Party won a landslide victory in the 1923–1924 election and Saad Zaghloul was appointed as the new prime minister. In 1936, the Anglo-Egyptian Treaty was concluded and British troops withdrew from Egypt, except for the Suez Canal. The treaty did not resolve the question of Sudan, which, under the terms of the existing Anglo-Egyptian Condominium Agreement of 1899, stated that Sudan should be jointly governed by Egypt and Britain, but with real power remaining in British hands.
Britain used Egypt as a base for Allied operations throughout the region, especially the battles in North Africa against Italy and Germany. Its highest priorities were control of the Eastern Mediterranean, and especially keeping the Suez Canal open for merchant ships and for military connections with India and Australia. When the war began in September 1939, Egypt declared martial law and broke off diplomatic relations with Germany. It broke diplomatic relations with Italy in 1940, but never declared war, even when the Italian army invaded Egypt. The Egyptian army did no fighting. In June 1940 the King dismissed Prime Minister Aly Maher, who got on poorly with the British. A new coalition Government was formed with the Independent Hassan Pasha Sabri as prime minister.
Following a ministerial crisis in February 1942, the ambassador Sir Miles Lampson, pressed Farouk to have a Wafd Party or Wafd-coalition government replace Hussein Sirri Pasha's government. On the night of 4 February 1942, British troops and tanks surrounded Abdeen Palace in Cairo and Lampson presented Farouk with an ultimatum. Farouk capitulated, and Nahhas formed a government shortly thereafter.
Most British troops were withdrawn to the Suez Canal area in 1947 (although the British army maintained a military base in the area), but nationalist, anti-British feelings continued to grow after the War. Anti-monarchy sentiments further increased following the disastrous performance of the Kingdom in the First Arab-Israeli War. The 1950 election saw a landslide victory of the nationalist Wafd Party and the King was forced to appoint Mostafa El-Nahas as new prime minister. In 1951 Egypt unilaterally withdrew from the Anglo-Egyptian Treaty of 1936 and ordered all remaining British troops to leave the Suez Canal.
As the British refused to leave their base around the Suez Canal, the Egyptian government cut off the water and refused to allow food into the Suez Canal base, announced a boycott of British goods, forbade Egyptian workers from entering the base and sponsored guerrilla attacks. On 24 January 1952, Egyptian guerrillas staged a fierce attack on the British forces around the Suez Canal, during which the Egyptian Auxiliary Police were observed helping the guerrillas. In response, on 25 January, General George Erskine sent out British tanks and infantry to surround the auxiliary police station in Ismailia. The police commander called the Interior Minister, Fouad Serageddin, Nahas's right-hand man, to ask if he should surrender or fight. Serageddin ordered the police to fight "to the last man and the last bullet". The resulting battle saw the police station levelled and 43 Egyptian policemen killed together with 3 British soldiers. The Ismailia incident outraged Egypt. The next day, 26 January 1952 was Cairo fire, as the anti-British riot was known, that saw much of downtown Cairo which the Khedive Ismail the Magnificent had rebuilt in the style of Paris, burned down. Farouk blamed the Wafd for the Black Saturday riot, and dismissed Nahas as prime minister the next day. He was replaced by Aly Maher Pasha.
On 22–23 July 1952, the Free Officers Movement, led by Muhammad Naguib and Gamal Abdel Nasser, launched a coup d'état (Egyptian Revolution of 1952) against the king. Farouk I abdicated the throne to his son Fouad II, who was, at the time, a seven-month-old baby. The Royal Family left Egypt some days later and the Council of Regency, led by Prince Muhammad Abdel Moneim was formed. The council, however, held only nominal authority and the real power was actually in the hands of the Revolutionary Command Council, led by Naguib and Nasser. Popular expectations for immediate reforms led to the workers' riots in Kafr Dawar on 12 August 1952. Following a brief experiment with civilian rule, the Free Officers abrogated the monarchy and the 1923 constitution and declared Egypt a republic on 18 June 1953. Naguib was proclaimed as president, while Nasser was appointed as the new prime minister.
Naguib was forced to resign in 1954 by Gamal Abdel Nassera Pan-Arabist and the real architect of the 1952 movementand was later put under house arrest. After Naguib's resignation, the position of president was vacant until the election of Nasser in 1956. In October 1954, Egypt and the United Kingdom agreed to abolish the Anglo-Egyptian Condominium Agreement of 1899 and grant Sudan independence; the agreement came into force on 1 January 1956. Nasser assumed Political power as president in June 1956 and began dominating the history of modern Egypt. British forces completed their withdrawal from the occupied Suez Canal Zone on 13 June 1956. He nationalised the Suez Canal on 26 July 1956; his hostile approach towards Israel and economic nationalism prompted the beginning of the Second Arab-Israeli War (Suez Crisis), in which Israel (with support from France and the United Kingdom) occupied the Sinai peninsula and the Canal. The war came to an end because of US and USSR diplomatic intervention and the status quo was restored. hit during the initial Suez Crisis on Egypt, 5 November 1956.]] In 1958, Egypt and Syria formed a sovereign union known as the United Arab Republic. The union was short-lived, ending in 1961 when Syria seceded. During most of its existence, the United Arab Republic was also in a loose confederation with North Yemen (or the Mutawakkilite Kingdom of Yemen), known as the United Arab States. In the early 1960s, Egypt became fully involved in the North Yemen Civil War. Despite several military moves and peace conferences, the war sank into a stalemate. In mid May 1967, the Soviet Union issued warnings to Nasser of an impending Israeli attack on Syria. Although the chief of staff Mohamed Fawzi verified them as "baseless",
Nasser took three successive steps that made the war virtually inevitable: on 14 May he deployed his troops in Sinai near the border with Israel, on 19 May he expelled the UN peacekeepers stationed in the Sinai Peninsula border with Israel, and on 23 May he closed the Straits of Tiran to Israeli shipping.Shlaim, Rogan, 2012 pp. 7, 106 On 26 May Nasser declared, "The battle will be a general one and our basic objective will be to destroy Israel".This prompted the beginning of the Third Arab Israeli War (Six-Day War) in which Israel attacked Egypt, and occupied Sinai Peninsula and the Gaza Strip, which Egypt had occupied since the 1948 Arab–Israeli War. During the 1967 war, an Emergency Law was enacted, and remained in effect until 2012, with the exception of an 18-month break in 1980/81. Under this law, police powers were extended, constitutional rights suspended and censorship legalised. At the time of the fall of the Egyptian monarchy in the early 1950s, less than half a million Egyptians were considered upper class and rich, four million middle class and 17 million lower class and poor. Egypt on the Brink by Tarek Osman, Yale University Press, 2010, p. 120 Fewer than half of all primary-school-age children attended school, most of them being boys. Nasser's policies changed this. Land reform and distribution, the dramatic growth in university education, and government support to national industries greatly improved social mobility and flattened the social curve. From academic year 1953–54 through 1965–66, overall public school enrolments more than doubled. Millions of previously poor Egyptians, through education and jobs in the public sector, joined the middle class. Doctors, engineers, teachers, lawyers, journalists, constituted the bulk of the swelling middle class in Egypt under Nasser. During the 1960s, the Egyptian economy went from sluggish to the verge of collapse, the society became less free, and Nasser's appeal waned considerably.
Hosni Mubarak came to power after the assassination of Sadat in a referendum in which he was the only candidate. He became another leader to dominate the Egyptian history. Hosni Mubarak reaffirmed Egypt's relationship with Israel yet eased the tensions with Egypt's Arab neighbours. Domestically, Mubarak faced serious problems. Mass poverty and unemployment led rural families to stream into cities like Cairo where they ended up in crowded slums, barely managing to survive. On 25 February 1986, the Security Police started rioting, protesting against reports that their term of duty was to be extended from three to four years. Hotels, nightclubs, restaurants and casinos were attacked in Cairo and there were riots in other cities. A daytime curfew was imposed. It took the army three days to restore order. 107 people were killed.Middle East International No. 270, 7 March 1986, Publishers Lord Mayhew, Dennis Walters. Simon Ingram p. 8, Per Gahrton p. 20
In the 1980s, 1990s, and 2000s, terrorist attacks in Egypt became numerous and severe, and began to target Christian , foreign tourists and government officials.Murphy, Caryle Passion for Islam: Shaping the Modern Middle East: the Egyptian Experience, Scribner, 2002, p. 4 In the 1990s an Islamist group, Al-Gama'a al-Islamiyya, engaged in an extended campaign of violence, from the murders and attempted murders of prominent writers and intellectuals, to the repeated targeting of tourists and foreigners. Serious damage was done to the largest sector of Egypt's economy—tourism"Solidly ahead of oil, Suez Canal revenues, and remittances, tourism is Egypt's main hard currency earner at $6.5 billion per year." (in 2005) ... concerns over tourism's future . Retrieved 27 September 2007.—and in turn to the government, but it also devastated the livelihoods of many of the people on whom the group depended for support.
During Mubarak's reign, the political scene was dominated by the National Democratic Party, which was created by Sadat in 1978. It passed the 1993 Syndicates Law, 1995 Press Law, and 1999 Nongovernmental Associations Law which hampered freedoms of association and expression by imposing new regulations and draconian penalties on violations. As a result, by the late 1990s parliamentary politics had become virtually irrelevant and alternative avenues for political expression were curtailed as well.Dunne, Michele (January 2006). "Evaluating Egyptian Reform". Carnegie Papers: Middle East Series (66): 4. Cairo grew into a metropolitan area with a population of over 22 million.On 17 November 1997, Luxor massacre near Luxor. In late February 2005, Mubarak announced a reform of the presidential election law, paving the way for multi-candidate polls for the first time since the 1952 movement. However, the new law placed restrictions on the candidates, and led to Mubarak's easy re-election victory. Voter turnout was less than 25%. Election observers also alleged government interference in the election process. After the election, Mubarak imprisoned Ayman Nour, the runner-up.
Human Rights Watch's 2006 report on Egypt detailed serious human rights violations under Mubarak's rule, including routine torture, arbitrary detentions and trials before military and state security courts. In 2007, Amnesty International released a report alleging that Egypt had become an international centre for torture, where other nations send suspects for interrogation, often as part of the War on Terror. Egypt's foreign ministry quickly issued a rebuttal to this report. Constitutional changes voted on 19 March 2007 prohibited parties from using religion as a basis for political activity, allowed the drafting of a new anti-terrorism law, authorised broad police powers of arrest and surveillance, and gave the president power to dissolve parliament and end judicial election monitoring. In 2009, Dr. Ali El Deen Hilal Dessouki, Media Secretary of the National Democratic Party (NDP), described Egypt as a "pharaonic" political system, and democracy as a "long-term goal". Dessouki also stated that "the real centre of power in Egypt is the military".
A constitutional referendum was held on 19 March 2011. On 28 November 2011, Egypt held its first parliamentary election since the previous regime had been in power. Turnout was high and there were no reports of major irregularities or violence.
Mohamed Morsi, who was affiliated with the Muslim Brotherhood, was elected president on 24 June 2012. On 30 June 2012, Mohamed Morsi was sworn in as Egypt's president. On 2 August 2012, Egypt's prime minister Hisham Qandil announced his 35-member cabinet comprising 28 newcomers, including four from the Muslim Brotherhood. Liberal and secular groups walked out of the constituent assembly because they believed that it would impose strict Islamic practices, while Muslim Brotherhood backers threw their support behind Morsi. On 22 November 2012, President Morsi issued a temporary declaration immunising his decrees from challenge and seeking to protect the work of the constituent assembly.
The move led to massive protests and violent action throughout Egypt. On 5 December 2012, tens of thousands of supporters and opponents of President Morsi clashed, in what was described as the largest violent battle between Islamists and their foes since the country's revolution. Mohamed Morsi offered a "national dialogue" with opposition leaders but refused to cancel the December 2012 constitutional referendum. On 3 July 2013, after a wave of public discontent with autocratic excesses of Morsi's Muslim Brotherhood government, the military removed Morsi from office, dissolved the Shura Council and installed a temporary interim government.
On 4 July 2013, 68-year-old Chief Justice of the Supreme Constitutional Court of Egypt Adly Mansour was sworn in as acting president over the new government following the removal of Morsi. The new Egyptian authorities cracked down on the Muslim Brotherhood and its supporters, jailing thousands and forcefully dispersing pro-Morsi and pro-Brotherhood protests. Many of the Muslim Brotherhood leaders and activists have either been sentenced to death or life imprisonment in a series of mass trials. On 18 January 2014, the interim government instituted a new constitution following a referendum approved by an overwhelming majority of voters (98.1%). 38.6% of registered voters participated in the referendum a higher number than the 33% who voted in a referendum during Morsi's tenure.
In the elections of June 2014, Abdel Fattah el-Sisi won with a percentage of 96.1%. On 8 June 2014, Abdel Fatah el-Sisi was officially sworn in as Egypt's new president. Under President el-Sisi, Egypt has implemented a rigorous policy of controlling the border to the Gaza Strip, including the dismantling of tunnels between the Gaza strip and Sinai. In April 2018, El-Sisi was re-elected by a landslide in election with no real opposition. In April 2019, Egypt's parliament extended presidential terms from four to six years. President Abdel Fattah al-Sisi was also allowed to run for a third term in the next election in 2024.
Under El-Sisi Egypt is said to have returned to authoritarianism. New constitutional reforms have been implemented, meaning strengthening the role of military and limiting the political opposition. The constitutional changes were accepted in a referendum in April 2019. In December 2020, final results of the parliamentary election confirmed a clear majority of the seats for Egypt's Mostaqbal Watan (Nation's Future) Party, which strongly supports president El-Sisi. The party even increased its majority, partly because of new electoral rules.
Apart from the Nile Valley, the majority of Egypt's landscape is desert, with a few oasis scattered about. Winds create prolific Dune that peak at more than high. Egypt includes parts of the Sahara desert and of the Libyan Desert.
Sinai peninsula hosts the highest mountain in Egypt, Mount Catherine at 2,642 metres. The Red Sea Riviera, on the east of the peninsula, is renowned for its wealth of coral reefs and marine life.
Towns and cities include Alexandria, the second largest city; Aswan; Asyut; Cairo, the modern Egyptian capital and largest city; El Mahalla El Kubra; Giza, the site of the Pyramid of Khufu; Hurghada; Luxor; Kom Ombo; Port Safaga; Port Said; Sharm El Sheikh; Suez, where the south end of the Suez Canal is located; Zagazig; and Minya. Oasis include Bahariya Oasis, Dakhla Oasis, Farafra, Kharga Oasis and Siwa Oasis. Protectorates include Ras Mohamed National Park, Zaranik Protectorate and Siwa.
On 13 March 2015, plans for a proposed new capital of Egypt were announced.
Egypt has an unusually hot, sunny and dry climate. Average high temperatures are high in the north but very to extremely high in the rest of the country during summer. The cooler Mediterranean winds consistently blow over the northern sea coast, which helps to get more moderated temperatures, especially at the height of the summertime. The Khamaseen is a hot, dry wind that originates from the vast deserts in the south and blows in the spring or in the early summer. It brings scorching sand and dust particles, and usually brings daytime temperatures over and sometimes over in the interior, while the relative humidity can drop to 5% or even less.
Prior to the construction of the Aswan Dam, the Nile flooded annually, replenishing Egypt's soil. This gave Egypt a consistent harvest throughout the years.
Egypt's hot and arid climate is increasingly strained by climate change, leading to extreme temperatures, droughts, floods, and rising sea levels. As a highly vulnerable nation, these environmental shifts threaten food security, water availability, public health, and economic stability.
The plan stated that the following numbers of species of different groups had been recorded from Egypt: algae (1483 species), animals (about 15,000 species of which more than 10,000 were insects), fungi (more than 627 species), monera (319 species), plants (2426 species), protozoans (371 species). For some major groups, for example lichen-forming fungi and nematode worms, the number was not known. Apart from small and well-studied groups like amphibians, birds, fish, mammals and reptiles, the many of those numbers are likely to increase as further species are recorded from Egypt. For the fungi, including lichen-forming species, for example, subsequent work has shown that over 2200 species have been recorded from Egypt, and the final figure of all fungi actually occurring in the country is expected to be much higher.A.M. Abdel-Azeem, The History, Fungal Biodiversity, Conservation, and Future Perspectives for Mycology in Egypt IMA Fungus 1 (2): 123–142 (2010). For the grasses, 284 native and naturalised species have been identified and recorded in Egypt.
After a wave of public discontent with the Muslim Brotherhood government of President Mohamed Morsi, on 3 July 2013 then-General Abdel Fattah el-Sisi announced the removal of Morsi from office and the suspension of the constitution. A 50-member constitution committee was formed for modifying the constitution, which was later published for public voting and was adopted on 18 January 2014.
The next parliamentary election was announced to be held within 6 months of the constitution's ratification on 18 January 2014, and were held in two phases, from 17 October to 2 December 2015. Originally, the parliament was to be formed before the president was elected, but interim president Adly Mansour pushed the date. The 2014 Egyptian presidential election took place on 26–28 May. Official figures showed a turnout of 25,578,233 or 47.5%, with Abdel Fattah el-Sisi winning with 23.78 million votes, or 96.9% compared to 757,511 (3.1%) for Hamdeen Sabahi.
In 2024, as part of its Freedom in the World report, Freedom House rated political rights in Egypt at 6 (with 40 representing the most free and 0 the least), and civil liberties at 12 (with 60 being the highest score and 0 the lowest), which gave it the freedom rating of "Not Free". According to the 2023 V-Dem Democracy indices Egypt is the eighth least democratic country in Africa. The 2023 edition of The Economist Democracy Index categorises Egypt as an "authoritarian regime", with a score of 2.93.
Egypt has the oldest continuous parliamentary tradition in the Arab world. The first popular assembly was established in 1866. It was disbanded as a result of the British occupation of 1882, and the British allowed only a consultative body to sit. In 1923, however, after the country's independence was declared, a new constitution provided for a parliamentary monarchy.
The United States has been a key partner, providing Egypt with US$1.3 billion in annual military assistance as of 2015. In 1989, Egypt was designated a major non-NATO ally, but relations soured following the 2013 Egyptian coup d'état, as the Obama administration criticized Egypt's crackdown on the Muslim Brotherhood and suspended joint military exercises. Under President Donald Trump, relations improved, with Abdel Fattah el-Sisi's 2017 visit to the White House marking the first by an Egyptian president in eight years.
Relations with Russia strengthened after Morsi's removal, with both nations expanding military cooperation and trade relations. Similarly, relations with China have deepened, culminating in the establishment of a "comprehensive strategic partnership" in 2014." China's Egypt Opportunity ". The Diplomat. 24 December 2014
In 2024 Egypt and the European Union elevated their relationship to a "strategic and comprehensive partnership", emphasizing political cooperation, and economic collaboration. Additionally, both sides are working on deepening trade relations under the Association Agreement, supporting Egypt's economic stability, and strengthening counterterrorism efforts.
Egypt remains an influential mediator in Middle Eastern conflicts, particularly in brokering ceasefires in Gaza and facilitating the Israeli–Palestinian peace process.
It is also a Member State of the African Union and the Arab League, hosting the Arab League headquarters in Cairo. The Arab League temporarily moved to Tunis in 1978 in protest of Egypt's Egypt–Israel peace treaty, but returned to Cairo in 1989. Egypt has also cultivated strong economic ties with Gulf nations such as Saudi Arabia and the United Arab Emirates, both of which have provided billions of dollars in financial assistance.
The military wields significant political influence, operating autonomously and remaining exempt from many civilian laws. A significant amount of military information is not made publicly available, including budget information, the names of the general officers and the military's size (which is considered a state secret).
In addition, the military is a major driver of Egypt's economic landscape, engaging in infrastructure development, consumer goods production, and real estate holdings through the National Service Projects Organization. The defense industry is also well-established, manufacturing small arms, armored vehicles, and naval vessels, while maintaining licensed production agreements with countries such as Germany and the United States.
With an active personnel strength of 438,500 and 479,000 reservists, it is one of the largest and best-equipped militaries in the region. The military operates a diverse arsenal consisting of modern Western, Soviet-era, and domestically produced equipment, sourced primarily from China, France, Germany, Italy, Russia, and the United States. Recent efforts have focused on modernization and procurement of advanced weaponry.
Egypt is one of few countries in the region to possess spy satellites, launching EgyptSat 1 in 2007, followed by EgyptSat 2 in 2014. In 2019, Egypt launched MisrSat-A, an observation satellite, followed later that year by Tiba-1, a civilian and military communications satellite. In 2023, Egypt launched Horus-1 and Horus-2, about a month apart. The country also placed MisrSat-2 into orbit later that year. All three of them are high-resolution observation satellites. In 2024, two months after MisrSat-2's launch, the country successfully completed the initial operational phase of NEXSAT-1, its first experimental Earth observation satellite, achieving milestones such as developing indigenous onboard software, advanced attitude-control systems, and independently capturing and processing satellite imagery, all of which marked a major step forward in Egypt's national space capabilities.
Conscription is mandatory for men aged 18–30, with service obligations ranging from 14 to 36 months, depending on educational level, followed by a nine-year reserve duty. Voluntary enlistment is possible from age 16 for men and 17 for women.
Islamic jurisprudence is the principal source of legislation. Sharia courts and qadis are run and licensed by the Ministry of Justice. The personal status law that regulates matters such as marriage, divorce and child custody is governed by Sharia. In a family court, a woman's testimony is worth half of a man's testimony.
On 26 December 2012, the Muslim Brotherhood attempted to institutionalise a controversial new constitution. It was approved by the public in a referendum held 15–22 December 2012 with 64% support, but with only 33% electorate participation. It replaced the 2011 Provisional Constitution of Egypt, adopted following the revolution.
The Penal code was unique as it contains a "Blasphemy Law". The present court system allows a death penalty including against an absent individual tried in absentia. Several Americans and Canadians were sentenced to death in 2012.
On 18 January 2014, the interim government successfully institutionalised a more secular constitution. The president is elected to a four-year term and may serve 2 terms. The parliament may impeach the president. Under the constitution, there is a guarantee of gender equality and absolute freedom of thought. The military retains the ability to appoint the national Minister of Defence for the next two full presidential terms since the constitution took effect. Under the constitution, political parties may not be based on "religion, race, gender or geography".
Egypt has been ranked among the worst countries for religious freedom, with widespread discrimination against minorities such as Coptic Christians, Baháʼís, and other Muslim sects. A 2009 report by Pew Forum on Religion & Public Life ranked Egypt fifth worst globally for religious freedom, while the United States Commission on International Religious Freedom has placed Egypt on its watch list due to state-tolerated violations. A 2010 Pew survey found that 84% of Egyptians supported the death penalty for apostasy, 77% backed amputations for theft, and 82% endorsed stoning for adultery.
Since the 2013 Egyptian coup d'état, political repression has intensified, with mass arrests and harsh crackdowns on dissent. During the August 2013 sit-in dispersal, 595 protesters were killed, making 14 August 2013 the deadliest day in Egypt's modern history." Memory of a Mass Killing Becomes Another Casualty of Egyptian Protests ". The New York Times. 13 November 2013. Since then, an estimated 60,000 political prisoners remain behind bars.
Egypt has also drawn international condemnation for mass death sentences, including a 2014 ruling sentencing 529 people to death in a single hearing. The United Nations and human rights groups have condemned these trials as gross violations of international law.
Homosexuality remains de facto criminalized, with 95% of Egyptians opposing its acceptance, according to a 2013 Pew survey. "The Global Divide on Homosexuality." pewglobal. 4 June 2013. A poll by the Thomson Reuters Foundation, based on assessments from specialists in women's rights, ranked Cairo as the worst megacity for women, evaluating cities on sexual harassment, healthcare access, harmful cultural practices, and economic opportunities.
Egypt's industrial base is diverse, encompassing chemical production, electronics, mining, steel, automotive manufacturing, pharmaceuticals, and textiles. The chemical industry is one of Egypt's largest, comprising plastics, rubber, paper, detergents, paints, fertilizers, and glass. Petrochemicals alone contribute around 12% of industrial output, valued at approximately $7 billion annually. With projected exports of $9 billion in 2024, the government supports the sector through infrastructure development, technology investments, and trade agreements. In electronics and home appliances, Egypt has positioned itself as a manufacturing hub through initiatives such as "Egypt Makes Electronics," with many international companies setting up factories in the country, including Electrolux, Samsung, Hisense, Beko, and Haier. Egypt is Africa's top steel producer, ranking 20th globally, with 9.8 million tons in 2022 and exports tripling to 1.54 million tons in 2023. Egypt's automotive industry, led by state-owned El Nasr Automotive Manufacturing Company and private firms like Ghabbour Group and MCV, has expanded through partnerships with global manufacturers, producing a range of passenger and commercial vehicles for both local and export markets. The government's 2024–2030 strategy aims to increase production to 500,000 vehicles annually, boost exports, and establish local electric vehicle manufacturing by 2025, integrating EVs into public transportation and fostering an automotive hub for regional and international markets.
Egypt's gold mining industry has expanded rapidly, driven by untapped reserves and government-led reforms aimed at modernizing the sector. The launch of international bid rounds marked a shift towards private sector participation, attracting major players such as AngloGold Ashanti and Alexander Nubia International. The Sukari mine, Egypt's first large-scale modern gold operation, became the centerpiece of these efforts, contributing significantly to production. The government has since introduced structural reforms to increase mining's GDP share to 5–6% by 2030, including digitization initiatives and investment-friendly policies. These measures have fueled a surge in gold exports, reaching $2.17 billion in 2024, nearly double the previous year, with Egypt aiming to rank among the world's top 10 gold exporters by 2027.
Egypt's agricultural sector remains essential to its economy, though its share of GDP and employment has declined over time. Egypt produces substantial quantities of wheat, maize, sugarcane, fruits, vegetables, fodder, and rice, yet remains reliant on wheat and maize imports, primarily from Ukraine and Russia, despite yield improvements since 1970. This dependency stems from high domestic demand, driven by subsidies and a culinary preference for bread, as well as Egypt's limited arable land and its emphasis on high-value export crops.
The Aswan High Dam, completed in 1971, significantly improved irrigation stability. As of 2010, 3.6 million hectares were cultivated, with the government targeting 4.8 million hectares by 2030. Major initiatives include the New Delta and Toshka Project, designed to convert desert areas into farmland using advanced irrigation techniques, wastewater treatment, groundwater and water desalination. Efforts to deregulate agriculture have improved price alignment with global markets, but climate change and water scarcity continue to pose long-term challenges. Egypt is among the world's top five recipients of remittances, which reached $23.7 billion in the first 10 months of 2024, a 45.3% increase from the previous year. These inflows are crucial for Egypt's foreign reserves and household incomes. Since 1979, Egypt has received substantial United States foreign aid, averaging $1.5 billion annually, with approximately $200 million allocated to economic assistance and the remainder directed toward military aid for procuring weapon systems from American suppliers.One of Egypt's most significant economic events in recent years was the currency flotation in 2024, which led to a 38% depreciation of the national currency, the Egyptian pound, after securing over $50 billion in international financing. This action, along with strategic agreements with the IMF, World Bank, EU, and Gulf states, improved Egypt's credit outlook. The government also implemented fiscal measures to raise the tax-to-revenue ratio and accelerate the privatization of state-owned companies to strengthen public finances. As a result, in the final quarter of 2024, private investment in Egypt exceeded public investment for the second consecutive quarter, accounting for more than half of the total investment volume. Private investment rose by 35.4% year-on-year, while public investment declined by 25.7%. This shift represents a significant rebalancing of Egypt's economic landscape, marking a notable departure from the dominance of public investments in the country's recent economic history.
Egypt's tourism strategy aims to attract 30 million tourists by 2028, with a focus on infrastructure improvements, high-profile projects like the Grand Egyptian Museum, and enhancing visitor experiences. In 2024, the country's top tourism markets included Germany, Russia, and Saudi Arabia. The Giza Necropolis is one of Egypt's best-known tourist attractions; it is the only one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World still in existence.
Egypt's beaches on the Mediterranean and the Red Sea, which extend to over , are also popular tourist destinations; the Gulf of Aqaba beaches, Safaga, Sharm el-Sheikh, Hurghada, Luxor, Dahab, Ras Sidr and Marsa Alam are popular sites.
Natural gas has since become crucial to Egypt's economy, attracting substantial foreign investment and governmental prioritization of petrochemical industries and gas exports. In 2009, around 38% of domestically produced natural gas was allocated for export. However, rising domestic demand led Egypt to prioritize local consumption over exports by 2014, significantly reducing gas available for international markets.
In 2015, Eni discovered the Zohr gas field, the largest natural gas reserve in the Mediterranean, with approximately 30 trillion cubic feet of gas. Production commenced in December 2017, reaching 2.7 billion cubic feet per day (bcf/d) by 2019, significantly improving Egypt's energy prospects. However, recent technical issues have reduced output from Zohr, prompting Egypt to secure additional gas imports from Cyprus to maintain exports to Europe through its LNG terminals. New drilling operations are planned to recover Zohr's production capacity.
International oil companies, notably BP, have invested heavily in Egypt's natural gas development. In 2015, BP committed $12 billion primarily toward the West Nile Delta project, currently producing nearly 1 bcf/d, alongside other significant fields such as Atoll (300 million cubic feet per day) and North Damietta, with production from the Qattameya discovery beginning in 2020.
Egypt is currently constructing its first nuclear power facility, the El Dabaa Nuclear Power Plant, in the northern coastal region, financed by a US$25 billion loan from Russia.
The Cairo Metro currently operates three lines, with a fourth line under construction and plans for additional expansions in the future. Meanwhile, two Cairo Monorail are also being built in the city, along with a Alexandria Metro in Alexandria.
Egypt has also undertaken major road infrastructure expansion through the National Roads Project, increasing the total length of main roads by nearly 30% from 23,500 km in 2014 to 30,500 km in 2024. Alongside constructing new highways, thousands of kilometers of roads have been upgraded, leading to improvements in Egypt's Road Quality Index, which rose from 118th place in 2015 to 18th place in 2024.
Egypt's aviation sector is led by EgyptAir, the country's flag carrier and largest airline, founded in 1932 by Talaat Harb. Now state-owned, EgyptAir operates from its Cairo International Airport hub, with scheduled passenger and cargo services to over 75 destinations across the Middle East, Europe, Africa, Asia, and the Americas. The airline's current fleet consists of 80 aircraft. The Suez Canal, an artificial sea-level waterway, connects the Mediterranean Sea and the Red Sea, enabling direct shipping between Europe and Asia without navigating around Africa. In 2023 it generated a record $9.4 billion in revenue for Egypt. Opened in November 1869, the canal runs from Port Said in the north to Port Tawfiq in the south, with Ismailia situated west of its midpoint. The canal is deep and wide , consisting of a northern access channel, a main section, and a southern access channel. The Ballah By-Pass and the Great Bitter Lake provide passing points along the canal, which operates without locks, allowing seawater to flow freely. Expansions completed in 2015 increased its daily capacity from 49 to 97 ships, reducing transit times and boosting global maritime trade.
On 26 August 2014, Egypt proposed the New Suez Canal, a parallel shipping lane aimed at increasing traffic capacity. The project was completed in July 2015, and the official inauguration took place on 6 August 2015, marked by international attendance and military flyovers.
Despite these challenges, water access has significantly improved. Between 1990 and 2010, piped water coverage rose from 89% to 100% in urban areas and from 39% to 93% in rural areas, eliminating open defecation in rural regions and achieving near-universal access to an improved water source. By 2015, 90% of the population had access to safely managed drinking water, increasing to 96.9% by 2019. Similarly, proper sanitation coverage expanded from 50% in 2015 to 66.2% in 2019, while the percentage of treated wastewater relative to total wastewater rose from 50% to 68.7% in the same period, reaching 74% in 2022. However, gaps in sanitation infrastructure have historically led to health concerns, with a 2007 report estimating 17,000 child deaths annually from diarrheal diseases linked to poor sanitation.National Water Research Center, Ministry of Water Resources and Irrigation (2007): Actualizing the Right to Water: An Egyptian Perspective for an Action Plan, Shaden Abdel-Gawad. Retrieved 30 April 2012.
Egypt has made significant investments in wastewater treatment infrastructure as part of its broader water management strategy. In 2021, the Bahr El Baqar Wastewater Treatment Plant was completed, becoming the largest in the world at the time, with a capacity of 5 million cubic meters per day. The treated water from this facility is allocated to irrigating 342,000 acres under the Sinai Peninsula Development Plan. In 2023, Egypt inaugurated the New Delta Wastewater Treatment Plant, surpassing Bahr El Baqar as the largest wastewater facility globally, with a capacity of 7.5 million cubic meters per day. A key component of Egypt's agricultural expansion strategy, the plant supports the New Delta reclamation project while also reducing pollution in Lake Mariout and the Mediterranean Sea.
Given Egypt's arid climate and lack of appreciable rainfall, agriculture is entirely dependent on irrigation. The Nile River, regulated by the Aswan High Dam, releases an annual average of 55 billion cubic meters, of which 46 billion cubic meters are diverted into irrigation canals.Egyptian Water Use Management Project (EWUP), 1984. Improving Egypt's Irrigation System in the Old Lands, Final Report. Colorado State University and Ministry of Public Works and Water Resources. This irrigation sustains 33,600 square kilometers (13,000 square miles) of agricultural land in the Nile Valley and Nile Delta, producing an average of 1.8 crops per year.
Egypt's people are highly urbanised, being concentrated along the Nile (notably Cairo and Alexandria), in the Delta and near the Suez Canal. Egyptians are divided demographically into those who live in the major urban centres and the , or farmers, that reside in rural villages. The total inhabited area constitutes only 77,041 km², putting the physiological density at over 1,200 people per km2, similar to Bangladesh.
While emigration was restricted under Nasser, thousands of Egyptian professionals were dispatched abroad in the context of the Arab Cold War. Egyptian emigration was liberalised in 1971, under President Sadat, reaching record numbers after the 1973 oil crisis. An estimated 2.7 million Egyptians live abroad. Approximately 70% of Egyptian migrants live in Arab countries (923,600 in Saudi Arabia, 332,600 in Libya, 226,850 in Jordan, 190,550 in Kuwait with the rest elsewhere in the region) and the remaining 30% reside mostly in Europe and North America (318,000 in the United States, 110,000 in Canada and 90,000 in Italy). The process of emigrating to non-Arab states has been ongoing since the 1950s.
Egypt hosts a migrant population of over 9 million, constituting 8.7% of the country's total population, according to the International Organization for Migration. These migrants originate from 133 countries, with the largest groups being Sudanese (4 million), Syrians (1.5 million), Yemenis (1 million), and Libyans (1 million), collectively making up 80% of all international migrants in Egypt.
The main foreign languages taught in schools, by order of popularity, are English, French, German and Italian.
Historically Egyptian was spoken, the latest stage of which is Coptic language. Spoken Coptic was mostly extinct by the 17th century but may have survived in isolated pockets in Upper Egypt as late as the 19th century. It remains in use as the liturgical language of the Coptic Orthodox Church of Alexandria.The language may have survived in isolated pockets in Upper Egypt as late as the 19th century, according to James Edward Quibell, "When did Coptic become extinct?" in Zeitschrift für ägyptische Sprache und Altertumskunde, 39 (1901), p. 87. It forms a separate branch among the family of Afroasiatic languages.
Egypt was an early and leading centre of Christianity into late antiquity; the Coptic Orthodox Church of Alexandria was founded in the first century and remains the largest church in the country. With the arrival of Islam in the seventh century, the country was gradually Islamised into a majority-Muslim country.
It is unknown when Muslims reached a majority, variously estimated from to as late as the 14th century. Egypt emerged as a centre of politics and culture in the Muslim world. Under Anwar Sadat, Islam became the official state religion and Sharia the main source of law.The majority of Egyptian Muslims adhere to the Sunni Islam. Nondenominational Muslims form roughly 12% of the population. Chapter 1: Religious Affiliation retrieved 4 September 2013 There is also a Shi'a minority. The Jerusalem Centre for Public Affairs estimates the Shia population at 1 to 2.2 million and could measure as much as 3 million. The Ahmadiyya population is estimated at less than 50,000,
whereas the Salafi (ultra-conservative Sunni) population is estimated at five to six million. Cairo is famous for its numerous mosque and has been dubbed "The City of 1,000 Minarets". The city also hosts Al-Azhar University, which is considered the preeminent institution of Islamic higher learning and jurisprudence; founded in the late tenth century, it is by some measures the second oldest continuously operating university in the world.Indira Falk Gesink, Islamic Reform and Conservatism: Al-Azhar and the Evolution of Modern Sunni Islam (I.B.Tauris, 2014), p. 2. It is estimated that 15 million Egyptians follow native Sufi Tariqah, with Sufism leadership asserting that the numbers are much greater, as many Egyptian Sufis are not officially registered with a Sufi order. At least 305 people were killed during a November 2017 attack on a Sufi mosque in Sinai.Walsh, Declan, and Youssef, Nour, Militants Kill 305 at Sufi Mosque in Egypt's Deadliest Terrorist Attack , The New York Times, 24 November 2017Of the Christian population in Egypt over 90% belong to the native Coptic Orthodox Church of Alexandria, an Oriental Orthodox Christian Church.
Other native Egyptian Christians are adherents of the Coptic Catholic Church, the Evangelical Church of Egypt and various other Protestant denominations. Non-native Christian communities are largely found in the urban regions of Cairo and Alexandria, such as the Syro-Lebanese, who belong to Greek Catholic, Greek Orthodox, and Maronite Catholic denominations.The Egyptian government recognises only three religions: Islam, Christianity, and Judaism. Other faiths and minority Muslim sects, such as the small Baháʼí Faith and Ahmadiyya communities, are not recognised by the state and face persecution by the government, which labels these groups a threat to Egypt's national security. Individuals, particularly Baháʼís and atheists, wishing to include their religion (or lack thereof) on their mandatory state issued identification cards are denied this ability, and were put in the position of either not obtaining required identification or lying about their faith. A 2008 court ruling allowed members of unrecognised faiths to obtain identification and leave the religion field blank.
In the 1950s, President Nasser phased in free education for all Egyptians. The Egyptian curriculum influenced other Arab education systems, which often employed Egyptian-trained teachers. Demand soon outstripped the level of available state resources, causing the quality of public education to deteriorate. Today this trend has culminated in poor teacher–student ratios (often around one to fifty) and persistent gender inequality.
Basic education, which includes six years of primary and three years of preparatory school, is a right for Egyptian children from the age of six.
After grade 9, students are tracked into one of two strands of secondary education: general or technical schools. General secondary education prepares students for further education, and graduates of this track normally join higher education institutes based on the results of the Thanaweya Amma, the leaving exam. In 2025 Egypt introduced a new Baccalaureate Certificate System which will replace the Thanaweya Amma starting 2026.Technical secondary education has two strands, one lasting three years and a more advanced education lasting five. Graduates of these schools may have access to higher education based on their results on the final exam, but this is generally uncommon.
The QS World University Rankings 2025 includes 15 Egyptian universities, with Cairo University ranked highest among them. The American University in Cairo follows, improving its position to 410th place. Several Egyptian universities have advanced in rankings compared to the previous year, reflecting ongoing improvements in higher education.
The country is currently opening new research institutes with the aim of modernising scientific research and development; the most recent example is Zewail City of Science and Technology. Egypt was ranked 86th in the Global Innovation Index in 2024.
The Ministry of Health and Population oversees most public hospitals, while the Ministry of Higher Education and Scientific Research manages university hospitals, offering free medical services. Other ministries operate hospitals for employees, and the Ministry of Defence and Ministry of Interior run facilities that require out-of-pocket payments for non-service members.
The private sector provides about 60% of healthcare services, including for-profit and nonprofit organizations, private hospitals, pharmacies, and independent practitioners. Numerous nongovernmental organizations also offer healthcare, including religious and charitable institutions. As of 2021, Egypt had 1,145 private hospitals, a 23.69% increase since 2011. Private healthcare facilities in Egypt are generally of high quality.
Egypt grants refugees and asylum-seekers access to public healthcare on equal terms with citizens, allowing them to receive care at primary health facilities either free or at low cost.
A 2008 report by the World Health Organisation estimated that 91.1% of Egypt's girls and women aged 15 to 49 have been subjected to genital mutilation. Government measures have reduced the practice among younger generations. By 2014, rates had dropped to 10.4% in urban areas and 15.9% in rural areas among girls aged 1–14, compared to 87.2% among women aged 15–49. Legislative reforms, awareness campaigns, and stricter law enforcement contributed to this decline. In 2016, penalties for performing the practice were increased, with prison sentences of up to 15 years for practitioners and up to 3 years for guardians who facilitate the procedure.
The work of early 19th century scholar Rifa'a al-Tahtawi renewed interest in Ancient Egypt and exposed Egyptian society to Enlightenment principles. Tahtawi co-founded with education reformer Ali Mubarak a native Egyptology school that looked for inspiration to medieval Egyptian scholars, such as Suyuti and Maqrizi, who themselves studied the history, language and antiquities of Egypt.
Egypt's renaissance peaked in the late 19th and early 20th centuries through the work of people like Muhammad Abduh, Ahmed Lutfi el-Sayed, Muhammad Loutfi Goumah, Tawfiq el-Hakim, Louis Awad, Qasim Amin, Salama Moussa, Taha Hussein and Mahmoud Mokhtar. They forged a liberal path for Egypt expressed as a commitment to personal freedom, secularism and faith in science to bring progress.
Well-known examples are the Pyramid of Djoser designed by ancient architect and engineer Imhotep, the Sphinx, and the temple of Abu Simbel. Modern and contemporary Egyptian art can be as diverse as any works in the world art scene, from the vernacular architecture of Hassan Fathy and Ramses Wissa Wassef, to Mahmoud Mokhtar's sculptures, to the distinctive Coptic art of Isaac Fanous. The Cairo Opera House serves as the main performing arts venue in the Egyptian capital.
Vernacular poetry is perhaps the most popular literary genre among Egyptians, represented by the works of Ahmed Fouad Negm (Fagumi), Salah Jaheen and Abdel Rahman el-Abnudi.
The number of cinemas increased with the emergence of talking films, and reached 395 in 1958. This number began to decline after the establishment of television in 1960 and the establishment of the public sector in cinemas in 1962, and reached 297 in 1965, then to 141 in 1995 due to the circulation of films through video equipment though the boom of the film industry in this period. Due to laws and procedures that encouraged investment in the establishment of private cinemas, they increased again, especially in commercial centres, until their number reached 200 in 2001 and 400 in 2009. Over a period of more than a hundred years, Egyptian cinema has presented more than four thousand films.
Contemporary Egyptian music traces its beginnings to the creative work of people such as Abdu al-Hamuli, Almaz and Mahmoud Osman, who influenced the later work of Sayed Darwish, Umm Kulthum, Mohammed Abdel Wahab and Abdel Halim Hafez. Prominent contemporary Egyptian pop singers include Amr Diab and Mohamed Mounir.
Notable museums in Egypt include the Egyptian Museum, which boasts over 120,000 items; the National Museum of Egyptian Civilization, home to 50,000 artifacts from various eras, with the remains of 22 ancient Egyptian kings and queens relocated there in 2021 during the Pharaohs' Golden Parade; and the Abdeen Palace Museum.
The Grand Egyptian Museum (GEM) is an under construction museum that will house the largest collection of ancient Egyptian artifacts in the world, it has been described as the world's largest archaeological museum. The museum is sited on of land approximately from the Giza Necropolis and is part of a new master plan for the plateau. It is slated to open the 3rd of July 2025.
The ancient spring festival of Sham en Nisim (Coptic language: shom en nisim) has been celebrated by Egyptians for thousands of years, typically between the Egyptian months of Paremoude (April) and Pashons (May), following Easter Sunday.
Some consider kushari (a mixture of rice, lentils, and macaroni) to be the national dish. In addition, ful medames (mashed fava beans) is one of the most popular dishes. Fava bean is also used in making falafel (also known as "ta'miya"), which may have originated in Egypt and spread to other parts of the Middle East. Garlic fried with coriander is added to mulukhiyya, a popular green soup made from finely chopped jute leaves, sometimes with chicken or rabbit.
The Egyptian national football team, known as the Pharaohs, won the African Cup of Nations seven times, including three times in a row in 2006, 2008, and 2010. Considered the most successful African national team and one which has reached the top 10 of the FIFA world rankings, Egypt has qualified for the FIFA World Cup three times. Two goals from star player Mohamed Salah in their last qualifying game took Egypt through to the 2018 FIFA World Cup. The Egyptian Youth National team Young Pharaohs won the Bronze Medal of the 2001 FIFA youth world cup in Argentina. Egypt was 4th place in the football tournament in the 1928 and the 1964 Olympics.
Squash and tennis are other popular sports in Egypt. The Egyptian squash team has been competitive in international championships since the 1930s. Amr Shabana, Ali Farag and Ramy Ashour are Egypt's best players and all were ranked the world's number one squash player. Egypt has won the Squash World Championships five times, with the last title being in 2019.
In 1999, Egypt hosted the IHF World Men's Handball Championship, and hosted it again in 2021. In 2001, the national handball team achieved its best result in the tournament by reaching fourth place. Egypt has won in the African Men's Handball Championship five times, being the best team in Africa. In addition to that, it also championed the Mediterranean Games in 2013, the Beach Handball World Championships in 2004 and the Summer Youth Olympics in 2010. Among all African nations, the Egypt national basketball team holds the record for best performance at the Basketball World Cup and at the Summer Olympics. Further, the team has won a record number of 16 medals at the African Championship.
Egypt has taken part in the Summer Olympic Games since 1912 and has hosted several other international competitions including the first Mediterranean Games in 1951, the 1991 All-Africa Games, the 2009 FIFA U-20 World Cup and the 1953, 1965 and 2007 editions of the Pan Arab Games.
|
|
